Kesan pelaburan langsung asing terhadap pertumbuhan ekonomi: perbandingan antara negara berpendapatan tinggi dengan sederhana menggunakan pendekatan kointegrasi asimetri

Walaupun peranan pelaburan langsung asing (FDI) terhadap pertumbuhan ekonomi telah banyak dibahaskan, namun begitu penyelidikan perbandingan antara negara berpendapatan tinggi dengan sederhana berdasarkan pendekatan kointegrasi asimetri adalah terhad. Oleh itu, kertas ini mengkaji kesan pelaburan langsung asing terhadap pertumbuhan ekonomi dengan membandingkan antara negara berpendapatan tinggi dengan sederhana menggunakan data siri masa dari tahun 1970 sehingga 2014. Kertas kerja ini menggunakan prosedur Johansen (1988) untuk kointegrasi simetri, manakala ujian kointegrasi ambang yang dicadangkan oleh Enders dan Siklos (2001) digunakan untuk kointegrasi asimetri. Hasil kajian mendapati keputusan asimetri menunjukkan negara-negara maju seperti Jepun dan Korea mempunyai pekali penyelarasan jangka panjang yang bersifat asimetri dan sisihan negatif bertindak lebih cepat apabila terdapat sisihan jangka panjang. Berbeza pula dapatan dengan negara sedang membangun seperti Malaysia dan Indonesia di mana pelarasan keseimbangan jangka panjang adalah bersifat simetri. Hal ini menunjukkan bahawa pekali pelarasan adalah sama tidak kira jika kesilapan keseimbangan positif atau negatif. Secara keseluruhan, keputusan kajian menunjukkan semua negara mempunyai hubungan jangka panjang antara FDI dan pertumbuhan ekonomi. Oleh itu, keputusan ini penting bagi penggubal dasar untuk memahami hubungan antara pelaburan langsung asing dengan pertumbuhan ekonomi, terutamanya berkaitan dengan kesan asimetri. Pembuat dasar perlu mengambil perhatian dengan sebarang kejutan yang akan berlaku kepada ekonomi

Empagliflozin in Patients with Chronic Kidney Disease

Background The effects of empagliflozin in patients with chronic kidney disease who are at risk for disease progression are not well understood. The EMPA-KIDNEY trial was designed to assess the effects of treatment with empagliflozin in a broad range of such patients. Methods We enrolled patients with chronic kidney disease who had an estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) of at least 20 but less than 45 ml per minute per 1.73 m(2) of body-surface area, or who had an eGFR of at least 45 but less than 90 ml per minute per 1.73 m(2) with a urinary albumin-to-creatinine ratio (with albumin measured in milligrams and creatinine measured in grams) of at least 200. Patients were randomly assigned to receive empagliflozin (10 mg once daily) or matching placebo. The primary outcome was a composite of progression of kidney disease (defined as end-stage kidney disease, a sustained decrease in eGFR to < 10 ml per minute per 1.73 m(2), a sustained decrease in eGFR of & GE;40% from baseline, or death from renal causes) or death from cardiovascular causes. Results A total of 6609 patients underwent randomization. During a median of 2.0 years of follow-up, progression of kidney disease or death from cardiovascular causes occurred in 432 of 3304 patients (13.1%) in the empagliflozin group and in 558 of 3305 patients (16.9%) in the placebo group (hazard ratio, 0.72; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.64 to 0.82; P < 0.001). Results were consistent among patients with or without diabetes and across subgroups defined according to eGFR ranges. The rate of hospitalization from any cause was lower in the empagliflozin group than in the placebo group (hazard ratio, 0.86; 95% CI, 0.78 to 0.95; P=0.003), but there were no significant between-group differences with respect to the composite outcome of hospitalization for heart failure or death from cardiovascular causes (which occurred in 4.0% in the empagliflozin group and 4.6% in the placebo group) or death from any cause (in 4.5% and 5.1%, respectively). The rates of serious adverse events were similar in the two groups. Conclusions Among a wide range of patients with chronic kidney disease who were at risk for disease progression, empagliflozin therapy led to a lower risk of progression of kidney disease or death from cardiovascular causes than placebo