Eating behaviour and retro-nasal aroma release in normal-weight and overweight adults: a pilot study

Eating rate and bite size are important factors affecting food intake, and we hypothesise the underlying role of oral sensory exposure in this. However, the latter currently lacks objective measuring parameters, but an interesting measure could be the extent of in vivo retronasal aroma release. Second, the literature is ambiguous about overweight subjects differing from normal-weight subjects in eating behaviour. Consequently, we investigated: (1) whether eating behaviour (food intake, eating rate, bite size, number of bites and meal duration) relates to weight status and (2) whether the extent of retro-nasal aroma release relates to eating behaviour and weight status. A matched group (sex, age and dietary restraint) of twenty-seven normal-weight (BMI 21.8 (SD 1.6) kg/m(2)) and twenty-seven overweight/obese subjects (BMI 30.5 (SD 5.8) kg/m(2)) consumed a spiced rice meal and apple pie yogurt on separate test days. The extent of retro-nasal aroma release was measured on a third test day. Mean bite size for spiced rice was significantly (P=0.03) larger in overweight/obese (10.3 (SD 3.2) g) v. normal-weight subjects (8.7 (SD 2.1) g). There were no other significant differences in eating behaviour or retro-nasal aroma release between the groups. Eating behaviours were not correlated with BMI or retro-nasal aroma release. Subjects showed consistent eating behaviour for both test products. Eating behaviour might be a characteristic of an individual but not by definition a characteristic for a group of people based on their weight. Given the large sample sizes, necessary according to a posteriori sample size calculations, one needs to consider the relevance of finding a statistically significant difference in eating behaviour between the weight groups in a laboratory setting

Acute Effects of Complexity in Aroma Composition on Satiation and Food Intake

Compared to placebo, subjects felt significantly more satiated during aroma stimulation with the multicomponent strawberry aroma in the olfactometer-aided setting. Additionally, perceived satiation was significantly increased 10-15 min after consumption of the multicomponent strawberry-aromatized sweetened yogurt product in the ad libitum eating setting. There was no effect on the amount of strawberry-aromatized sweetened yogurt product consumed ad libitum. Apart from the differences in timing of the appetite-regulating effects, both experimental settings demonstrated that the multicomponent strawberry aroma, which was perceived as being more complex, yet of similar aroma quality, intensity, and pleasantness compared with the single-component strawberry aroma, was able to enhance perceived satiation. The methodology of the olfactometer-aided aroma stimulation proved to be representative of a real-life setting with regard to aroma exposure and satiation. Food products, which are perceived as being more complex, have been suggested to delay the development of sensory satiation as a result of implicitly cueing for variation. The present results may be explained by increased sensory stimulation, due to concurrent exposure to multiple aroma components cueing for sensorily similar strawberry perceptio

Probiotic research priorities for the healthy adult population: A review on the health benefits of Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG and Bifidobacterium animalis subspecies lactis BB-12

A diluted distribution of research efforts hampers probiotic innovation and curtails potential health benefits for the consumer market. Research priorities have been postulated to aid strategic planning, but it remains to be determined how probiotic strains currently pertain to these priorities. We therefore set out to review how probiotic research priorities are currently met by the two best-documented strains, Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG (LGG) and Bifidobacterium animalis subspecies lactis BB-12 (BB-12), focusing on the needs of the healthy adult population. A literature search was conducted to retrieve clinical studies in adults, reporting on in vivo effects of BB-12, LGG, or LGG + BB-12. A framework of studies was created, with a separate emphasis on the potential of probiotics to prevent disease in healthy adults. A total of 76 papers were reviewed. Current evidence indicates that LGG and BB-12 supplementation may promote human health and support the daily wellness of consumers, although most (earlier) trials do not meet the stringent standards required for scientific substantiation of a health claim in Europe. To advance innovation and respond to unmet health needs, it is crucial that well-designed, appropriately scaled studies build on top of promising data, specifically in areas where strong associations are apparent

Effects of aroma : texture congruency within dairy custard on satiation and food intake

Food intake regulation comprises numerous components from peripheral and central pathways, including sensory and cognitive elements. This study investigated if congruency in different aroma¿texture combinations within a dairy product influences satiation and food consumption in humans. Among seven different aromas, vanilla was rated as congruent and lemon as incongruent aroma in the context of creamy texture, while both aromas were highly liked and familiar. Creamy custard, either vanilla- or lemon-aromatised, was given to 32 subjects in a preload ¿ ad libitum regimen. Satiation was measured on visual analogue scales and by salivary ¿-amylase concentration. Finally, the amount of ad libitum intake was determined. No effects of congruency were found on ad libitum consumption and perceived satiation. Subjects felt more satiated when preload and ad libitum intakes shared the identical aroma compared to varied aromas. This was not supported by increased salivary ¿-amylase levels, although those increased overall with intake. In conclusion, there was no relation between congruency in aroma and texture in dairy custard and food intake, but aroma perception possibly modulates perceived satiation

Aroma exposure time and aroma concentration in relation to satiation

The present study investigated the effect of aroma exposure time and aroma concentration on ad libitum intake and subjective satiation. In a within-subject study, thirty-eight unrestrained, healthy female participants (age: 18-39 years; BMI: 18·5-26·0 kg/m2) were asked to consume tomato soup during lunchtime, until they felt comfortably full. Every 30 s, the participants consumed 10 g of a bland soup base while tomato soup aroma was delivered separately through the nose via a retronasal tube that was attached to an olfactometer. This gave the impression of consuming real tomato soup. For each sip, the aroma varied in exposure time (3 and 18 s) and concentration (5 × ), resulting in four different test conditions. Ad libitum food intake and appetite profile parameters were measured. A 9 % lower food intake was observed when the participants were exposed to the condition with 18 s exposure time and a high concentration than when exposed to the other three conditions. These results indicate that changing the retronasal aroma release by aroma concentration and aroma exposure time affects food intak

Effects of bite size and duration of oral processing on retro-nasal aroma release - features contributing to meal termination

The brain response to a retro-nasally sensed food odour signals the perception of food and it is suggested to be related to satiation. It is hypothesised that consuming food either in multiple small bite sizes or with a longer durations of oral processing may evoke substantial oral processing per gram consumed and an increase in transit time in the oral cavity. This is expected to result in a higher cumulative retro-nasal aroma stimulation, which in turn may lead to increased feelings of satiation and decreased food intake. Using real-time atmospheric pressure chemical ionisation-MS, in vivo retro-nasal aroma release was assessed for twenty-one young, healthy and normal-weight subjects consuming dark chocolate-flavoured custard. Subjects were exposed to both free or fixed bite size (5 and 15 g) and durations of oral processing before swallowing (3 and 9 s) in a cross-over design. For a fixed amount of dark chocolate-flavoured custard, consumption in multiple small bite sizes resulted in a significantly higher cumulative extent of retro-nasal aroma release per gram consumed compared with a smaller amount of large bite sizes. In addition, a longer duration of oral processing tended to result in a higher cumulative extent of retro-nasal aroma release per gram consumed compared with a short duration of oral processing. An interaction effect of bite size and duration of oral processing was not observed. In conclusion, decreasing bite size or increasing duration of oral processing led to a higher cumulative retro-nasal aroma stimulation per gram consumed. Hence, adapting bite size or duration of oral processing indicates that meal termination can be accelerated by increasing the extent of retro-nasal aroma release and, subsequently, the satiation