Experimental Individuation and Philosophical Retail Arguments

This paper aims to defend the use of the notion of experimental individuation, which has recently been developed by Ruey-Lin Chen, as a criterion for the reality of theoretical entities. In short, when scientists experimentally individuate an entity, a realist conclusion about that entity is warranted. We embed this claim regarding experimental individuation within a framework that allows for other criteria of reality. And we understand so-called retail arguments regarding the reality of a particular theoretical entity as arguments that concern choosing an appropriate criterion of reality for that entity and determining whether the relevant first-order scientific evidence satisfies that criterion. We argue that such retail arguments are philosophical because defending criteria of reality, and showing that they are or are not satisfied in particular cases, involves work that is distinctively philosophical. And we illustrate this philosophical work by applying our criterion of experimental individuation to three historical cases: Davy’s potassium, Lavoisier’s muriatic radical, and Thomson’s electrified particles

Intervention as both Test and Exploration: Reexamining the PaJaMo Experiment based on Aims and Modes of Interventions

This paper explores multiple experimental interventions in molecular biology. By “multiple,” we mean that molecular biologists often use different modes of experimental interventions in a series of experiments for one and the same subject. In performing such a series of experiment, scientists may use different modes of interventions to realize plural goals such as testing given hypotheses and exploring novel phenomena. In order to illustrate this claim, we develop a framework of multiple modes of experimental interventions to analyze a series of experiments for a single subject. Our argument begins with a brief characterization of Craver and Darden’s taxonomy of experiments, because the taxonomy they have made implies various modes of interventions (Carver and Darden 2013). We propose to extract two interventional directions and two interventional effects from their taxonomy as the basis of classification. The vertical or inter-level direction means that an intervention is performed between different levels of organization and the horizontal or inter-stage direction means that an intervention is performed between different stages of a mechanism. Interventions may produce an excitatory or an inhibitory effect. As a consequence, we can classify modes of interventions according to different directions and effects. We illustrate our claims by doing a case study of the PaJaMo experiment, which is a series of experiments for a single subject. The final goal in this paper is to provide a taxonomy of characteristics of experimentation in which the PaJaMo experiment is adequately located

Intervention as both Test and Exploration: Reexamining the PaJaMo Experiment based on Aims and Modes of Interventions

This paper explores multiple experimental interventions in molecular biology. By “multiple,” we mean that molecular biologists often use different modes of experimental interventions in a series of experiments for one and the same subject. In performing such a series of experiment, scientists may use different modes of interventions to realize plural goals such as testing given hypotheses and exploring novel phenomena. In order to illustrate this claim, we develop a framework of multiple modes of experimental interventions to analyze a series of experiments for a single subject. Our argument begins with a brief characterization of Craver and Darden’s taxonomy of experiments, because the taxonomy they have made implies various modes of interventions (Carver and Darden 2013). We propose to extract two interventional directions and two interventional effects from their taxonomy as the basis of classification. The vertical or inter-level direction means that an intervention is performed between different levels of organization and the horizontal or inter-stage direction means that an intervention is performed between different stages of a mechanism. Interventions may produce an excitatory or an inhibitory effect. As a consequence, we can classify modes of interventions according to different directions and effects. We illustrate our claims by doing a case study of the PaJaMo experiment, which is a series of experiments for a single subject. The final goal in this paper is to provide a taxonomy of characteristics of experimentation in which the PaJaMo experiment is adequately located

Scientific exploration of causation in biomedical research: The case of gene targeting on mouse embryonic stem cells

This paper aims to explore scientific exploration of causation in biomedical science. “Scientific exploration” means searching for new information, data or knowledge beyond what is known about some objective by plural means. I use this concept in contrast to “scientific explanation,” because a scientific exploration does not answer a why-question. A scientific exploration is a scientific action or practice that involves not only exploratory experiments but also other means such as background knowledge and ideas, the production of research tools, standardized operational procedures, database searches, animal modeling, the realization of assumptions, and analogical reasoning. A scientific exploration of causation aims to discover new information, data or knowledge about a particular causal relationship. It can also determine whether a supposed causal relationship between a factor and a phenomenon exists or not. Hence, a scientific exploration of causation involves the establishment of a criterion of causation, which biomedical scientists frequently appeal to Robert Koch’s postulates. To flesh out a scientific exploration of causation, I offer a case study of gene targeting on mouse embryonic stem cells to illustrate, in particular, employing this technique to produce gene knockout mice that express the symptoms of cystic fibrosis and to establish a mouse model for human disease of cystic fibrosis

Individuating Genes as Types or Individuals: Philosophical Implications on Individuality, Kinds, and Gene Concepts

“What is a gene?” is an important philosophical question that has been asked over and over. This paper approaches this question by understanding it as the individuation problem of genes, because it implies the problem of identifying genes and identifying a gene presupposes individuating the gene. I argue that there are at least two levels of the individuation of genes. The transgenic technique can individuate “a gene” as an individual while the technique of gene mapping in classical genetics can only individuate “a gene” as a type or a kind. The two levels of individuation involve different techniques, different objects that are individuated, and different references of the term “gene”. Based on the two levels of individuation, I discuss important philosophical implications including the relationship between individuality and individuation and that between individuals and kinds in experimental contexts. I also suggest a new gene conception, calling it “the transgenic conception of the gene.

Overweight Risk and Parental Concerns of Risk for Chinese Preschoolers in the U.S., China and Taiwan

Background and Purpose: The World Health Organization (WHO) has designated childhood obesity as a global epidemic. Parental factors such as perceptions of their child’s weight status, concerns about their child’s weight, parental feeding practices, and parents’ own weight status may be associated with increased obesity risk among preschool children. This study aims to explore factors related to body mass index (BMI) and parental concerns about their children’s weight among Chinese pre-school aged children in the U.S., China and Taiwan. Methods: A cross-sectional study design was utilized. One hundred children (ages 3-5) and their parents participated in the study. Parents completed a family eating and activity habit questionnaire, a child feeding practices survey, a child bdy shape pictorial list, and a demographic survey. Children had their weight and height measured. Results: Fathers’ elevated BMI was related to higher children’s BMI (R2 = .095, p = 005), especially among boys. Parent-reported food restriction practices, perception of their child being heavy, increased food monitoring, and higher children’s activity level were associated with increased concerns for a child’s weight (R2 = .43, p = 001). Conclusion: In contrast to literature that focuses on mothers, our study suggests that obesity prevention for Chinese fathers may assist in the obesity prevention efforts of their young children, especially among boys. In addition, parent education on healthy feeding practices for preschool children is warranted for preventing childhood obesity

Practices of Market Making for Sustaining Electronic Auction

This article examines how technology may be used continuously in organizations. Particularly, it investigates the organizing practices that support continuous technology-use. Exploring such organizing practices is meaningful because they could sustain ongoing organizational innovation. A field study on the enterprise application of e-auction (electronic auction, or otherwise known as online reverse auction and electronic bidding) is used to illustrate how a marketplace is effectively maintained over a span of seven years. Our findings identify a set of market-making practices and its principles that underscore sustained use of e-auction. This research contributes to literature on technology-use and adoption, as well as adds to studies on the electronic marketplace. It also offers practical lessons to implementers who seek to adopt the e-auction to achieve significant cost-savings and streamline the supply chain

Experimental criteria for accessing reality: Perrin’s experimental demonstration of atoms and molecules

This paper develops an approach to the scientific realism debate that has three main features. First, our approach admits multiple criteria of reality, i.e., criteria that, if satisfied, warrant belief in the reality of hypothetical entities. Second, our approach is experiment-based in the sense that it focuses on criteria that are satisfied by experiments as opposed to theories. Third, our approach is local in the sense that it focuses on the reality of particular kinds of entities. We apply this approach to a case that many philosophers have debated, namely, Jean Perrin’s work on atoms and molecules. We provide a novel account by arguing that Perrin’s work warranted a minimal belief in the reality of atoms and molecules as unobservable, discrete particles by satisfying a criterion of reality that we call experimental determination of number per unit. By doing so, he confirmed Avogadro’s hypothesis, but he did not confirm other key constituents of the atomic theories involved. We argue that our account of Perrin’s work is preferable to several other accounts, and we use this as a reason in support of our approach to the realism debate more generally

Experimental Individuation and Philosophical Retail Arguments

This paper aims to defend the use of the notion of experimental individuation, which has recently been developed by Ruey-Lin Chen, as a criterion for the reality of theoretical entities. In short, when scientists experimentally individuate an entity, a realist conclusion about that entity is warranted. We embed this claim regarding experimental individuation within a framework that allows for other criteria of reality. And we understand so-called retail arguments regarding the reality of a particular theoretical entity as arguments that concern choosing an appropriate criterion of reality for that entity and determining whether the relevant first-order scientific evidence satisfies that criterion. We argue that such retail arguments are philosophical because defending criteria of reality, and showing that they are or are not satisfied in particular cases, involves work that is distinctively philosophical. And we illustrate this philosophical work by applying our criterion of experimental individuation to three historical cases: Davy’s potassium, Lavoisier’s muriatic radical, and Thomson’s electrified particles