Explaining Female and Male Entrepreneurship at the Country Level

Using Global Entrepreneurship Monitor data for 29 countries this study investigates the (differential) impact of several factors on female and male entrepreneurship at the country level. These factors are derived from three streams of literature, including that on entrepreneurship in general, on female labor force participation and on female entrepreneurship. The paper deals with the methodological aspects of investigating (female) entrepreneurship by distinguishing between two measures of female entrepreneurship: the number of female entrepreneurs and the share of women in the total number of entrepreneurs. The first measure is used to investigate whether variables have an impact on entrepreneurship in general (influencing both the number of female and male entrepreneurs). The second measure is used to investigate whether factors have a differential relative impact on female and male entrepreneurship, i.e., whether they influence the diversity or gender composition of entrepreneurship. Findings indicate that – by and large – female and male entrepreneurial activity rates are influenced by the same factors and in the same direction. However, for some factors (e.g., unemployment, life satisfaction) we find a differential impact on female and male entrepreneurship. The present study also shows that the factors influencing the number of female entrepreneurs may be different from those influencing the share of female entrepreneurs. In this light it is important that governments are aware of what they want to accomplish (i.e., do they want to stimulate the number of female entrepreneurs or the gender composition of entrepreneurship) to be able to select appropriate policy measures

The effect of entrepreneurial activity on national economic growth

Entrepreneurial activity is generally assumed to be an important aspect of the organization of industries most conducive to innovative activity and unrestrained competition. This paper investigates whether total entrepreneurial activity influences GDP growth for a sample of 36 countries. We test whether this influence depends on the level of economic development measured as GDP per capita. Adjustment is made for a range of alternative explanations for achieving economic growth by incorporating the Growth Competitiveness Index. We find that entrepreneurial activity by nascent entrepreneurs and owner/managers of young businesses affects economic growth, but that this effect depends upon the level of per capita income. This suggests that entrepreneurship plays a different role in countries in different stages of economic development

The curious nonexistence of Gaussian 2-designs

2-designs -- ensembles of quantum pure states whose 2nd moments equal those of the uniform Haar ensemble -- are optimal solutions for several tasks in quantum information science, especially state and process tomography. We show that Gaussian states cannot form a 2-design for the continuous-variable (quantum optical) Hilbert space L2(R). This is surprising because the affine symplectic group HWSp (the natural symmetry group of Gaussian states) is irreducible on the symmetric subspace of two copies. In finite dimensional Hilbert spaces, irreducibility guarantees that HWSp-covariant ensembles (such as mutually unbiased bases in prime dimensions) are always 2-designs. This property is violated by continuous variables, for a subtle reason: the (well-defined) HWSp-invariant ensemble of Gaussian states does not have an average state because the averaging integral does not converge. In fact, no Gaussian ensemble is even close (in a precise sense) to being a 2-design. This surprising difference between discrete and continuous quantum mechanics has important implications for optical state and process tomography.Comment: 9 pages, no pretty figures (sorry!

Blue Ocean vs. Five Forces

The article reports on the authors' research in the Netherlands which focused on a profit model in Dutch retail stores and a so-called blue-ocean approach which requires a new market that attracts consumers and increases profits. Topics include the competitive strategy approach to increasing profits. The authors conclude that the blue-ocean strategy or innovation approach is sustainable

Blue Ocean versus Competitive Strategy: Theory and Evidence

Blue ocean strategy seeks to turn strategic management on its head by replacing ‘competitive advantage’ with ‘value innovation’ as the primary goal where firms must create consumer demand and exploit untapped markets. Empirical analysis has been focused on case study evidence and so lacks generality to resolve the debate. We provide a methodological synthesis of the theories enabling us to bring statistical evidence to the debate. Our analysis finds that blue ocean and competitive strategies overlap and managers do not face a discrete either/or decision between each strategy. Our evidence for the Dutch retail industry indicates that blue ocean strategy has prevailed as a dominant long term viable strategy

The Relationship between Entrepreneurship and Unemployment in Japan

This paper examines the relationship between entrepreneurship (as measured by fluctuations in the business ownership rate) and unemployment in Japan for the period between 1972 and 2002. We find that, although Japan’s unemployment rate has been influenced by specific exogenous shocks, the effects of entrepreneurship on unemployment are not different when compared to other OECD countries. In the past, small firms in Japan benefited from the protective environment of the keiretsu structure. This secure environment no longer exists, and a new market environment conducive to new venture creation and growth has not yet been established. We argue that the Japanese government should actively stimulate an entrepreneurial culture

An integrated smart thermo-chemical energy network

Managing the intermittency of renewable sources together with transient (hourly to daily to seasonal) energy demands is one of the principal challenges of delivering a net-zero energy system. Smart multifunctional thermo-chemical energy networks represent an alternative energy network and storage system, a solution based on the distribution of energy via thermo-chemical material rather than thermal energy, gas, fuels or electricity– an option that has scope for integrated short- and long-term energy storage. This is the first research work to realise such a system and demonstrate how it might operate using smart control strategies and how thermo-chemical fluids (TCFs) can be used as a medium for timely energy storage and distribution. The experimental study also describes the effect of steady and variable heat sources on TCF regeneration performance and estimates the potential of thermo-chemical energy networks, which would be particularly beneficial in buildings with high energy consumption for humidity control. This research proves the practicality of the design idea for such a network, which would be governed by centralised control, regenerated by steady or transient heat loads and capable of supplying a variety of demands in an experimental setting. The energy and economic potential of the network were also assessed, identifying temperature and humidity control application scenarios with energy savings of more than 60% compared to conventional operation and payback periods of 6.6–9.7 years

The relationship between business ownership and unemployment in Spain: a matter of quantity or quality?

This paper examines the interrelations between self-employment and unemployment rates for Spain in the period 1972-2004, comparing them with the general pattern observed for OECD countries. We apply the model as proposed by Audretsch, Carree, van Stel and Thurik (2005) to Spain. The divergence between predicted and actual unemployment levels in Spain are explained by country-specifi c shocks in the period under study, which are outside the scope of the model. This indicates that the general mechanism of employment generation by the self-employed may also be applicable to Spain, at least in the long run. The Spanish industrial structure is characterized by a relatively high and fl uctuating unemployment level and a relatively high and stable business ownership rate, suggesting that the quantity of business ownership in Spain does not have a particularly large contribution to bringing down unemployment. In recent years we see that the unemployment rate decreases and stabilizes. We argue that, in addition to several labor market reforms, an increase in the quality of business ownership in Spain may also have contributed to the recent decrease in the unemployment rate. Keywords: entrepreneurship, self-employment, unemployment, economic growth, Spai

From nascent to actual entrepreneurship: the effect of entry barriers

This exploratory study focuses on the conversion from nascent to actual entrepreneurship and the role of entry barriers in this process. Using data for a sample of countries participating in the Global Entrepreneurship Monitor between 2002 and 2004, we estimate a twoequation model explaining the nascent entrepreneurship rate and the young business entrepreneurship rate, while taking into account the interrelationship between the two variables (i.e. the conversion). Furthermore various determinants of entrepreneurship reflecting the demand and supply side of entrepreneurship as well as government intervention are incorporated in the model. We find evidence for a strong conversion effect from nascent to actual entrepreneurship. We also find positive effects on entrepreneurial activity rates of labour flexibility and tertiary enrollment and a negative effect of social security expenditure. Concerning the effect of entry regulations we find mixed results. Using one set of entry regulation measures we find no effects whereas using data from a second source we find a weak negative effect of more burdensome entry regulations on the rate of entrepreneurship

Business Ownership and Economic Growth in 23 OECD Countries

In the present paper we address the relationship between the extent of business ownership (self-employment) and economic development. We will focus upon three issues. First, how is the equilibrium rate of business ownership related to the stage of economic development? Second, what is the speed of convergence towards the equilibrium rate when the rate of business ownership is out-of-equilibrium? Third, to what extent does deviating from the equilibrium rate of business ownership lead to less economic growth? Hypotheses concerning all three issues are formulated setting up a new two-equation model. We find confirmation for the hypothesised effects using a data panel of 23 OECD countries. An important policy implication of our exercises is that low barriers to entry and exit of self-employed/businesses are necessary conditions for the equilibrium seeking mechanisms that are vital for a sound economic development