Mean WRAML2 Index Scores for Boys and Girls Stratified by Prenatal Stress and Black Carbon Exposure.

<p>Low and high prenatal stress are defined as negative life event domain scores ≤ 1 (lowest tertile) and >3 (highest tertile), respectively; BC is dichotomized using a median split (0.4 μg/m³). Error bars represent one standard deviation above and below the mean. Abbreviations: BC: black carbon; WRAML2: Wide Range Assessment of Memory and Learning-2nd edition. <i>P</i>_<i>int</i> represents the p-value from the 3-way interaction between child sex × prenatal stress × prenatal BC.</p

Detection of long non-coding RNAs in human breastmilk extracellular vesicles: Implications for early child development

<p>Breastmilk has many documented beneficial effects on the developing human infant, but the components of breastmilk that influence these developmental pathways have not been fully elucidated. Increasing evidence suggests that non-coding RNAs encapsulated in extracellular vesicles (EVs) represent an important mechanism of communication between the mother and child. Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) are of particular interest given their key role in gene expression and development. However, it is not known whether breastmilk EVs contain lncRNAs. We used qRT-PCR to determine whether EVs isolated from human breastmilk contain lncRNAs previously reported to be important for developmental processes. We detected 55 of the 87 screened lncRNAs in EVs from the 30 analyzed breastmilk samples, and CRNDE, DANCR, GAS5, SRA1 and ZFAS1 were detected in >90% of the samples. GAS5, SNHG8 and ZFAS1 levels were highly correlated (Spearman's rho > 0.9; <i>P</i> < 0.0001), which may indicate that the loading of these lncRNAs into breastmilk EVs is regulated by the same pathways. The detected lncRNAs are important epigenetic regulators involved in processes such as immune cell regulation and metabolism. They may target a repertoire of recipient cells in offspring and could be essential for child development and health. Further experimental and epidemiological studies are warranted to determine the impact of breastmilk EV-encapsulated lnRNAs in mother to child signaling.</p

Overview of the Still-Face Paradigm.

<p>Overview of the Still-Face Paradigm.</p

Individual trajectories of RSA uncorrected and corrected for respiration (both tidal volume and respiration rate) across the three episodes of the first Still-Face Test (n = 23).

<p>Individual trajectories of RSA uncorrected and corrected for respiration (both tidal volume and respiration rate) across the three episodes of the first Still-Face Test (n = 23).</p

Means ± standard deviations of respiration-uncorrected and respiration-corrected RSA indices, respiration measures, and HR for Still-Face Test episodes.

<p><i>Note:</i> HR = heart rate; V_T = tidal volume; RSA = respiratory sinus arrhythmia; T_TOT = total respiratory cycle time; HR = heart rate; RSA/V_T = RSA normalized by V_T; c = adjusted for T_TOT; logRSA = logarithm(RSA+1); logRSA/V_T = logarithm(RSA/V_T)+1.</p

ANOVA time effects (<i>df</i> = 4,60 or 2,44) and paired <i>t</i>-tests (<i>df</i> = 15 or 22) measuring reduction in additional respiration-uncorrected and corrected RSA indices during Still-Face Test 1 and 2.

<p><i>Note:</i> V_T = tidal volume; RSA = respiratory sinus arrhythmia; T_TOT = total respiratory cycle time; HR = heart rate; RSA/V_T = RSA normalized by V_T; c = adjusted for total respiratory cycle time; logRSA = logarithm(RSA+1); logRSA/V_T = logarithm(RSA/V_T)+1.</p><p><i>p</i>-level of both tests Bonferroni-adjusted for all indices.</p

Percentages of breaths too short to allow extraction of two inter-beat intervals for peak-valley RSA calculation in infants.

<p><i>Note:</i> RSA = respiratory sinus arrhythmia; Frequencies across episodes (as % of analyzed breaths) and ANOVA time effects for infants with one Still-Face Test (<i>n</i> = 23, <i>df</i> = 2,44) and two Still-Face Tests (<i>n</i> = 16, <i>df</i> = 4,60).</p>†<p><i>p</i><.10.</p

Within-individual association of infant RSA with respiratory parameters T_TOT entered in Step 1 and V_T entered in Step 2, or in reverse order, calculated across all episodes of the Still-Face Paradigm.

<p><i>Note:</i> T_TOT = total respiratory cycle time; V_T = tidal volume; RSA = respiratory sinus arrhythmia.</p>†<p>frequency of positive within-individual correlations for which <i>p</i><.10.</p>§<p>range of <i>n</i> = 126–444 breaths.</p

Overall ANOVA time effects (df = 4,66 or 2,44) for changes in physiological parameters across Still-Face Tests and paired t-tests (df = 15 or 22) testing changes from Play to Still-Face episodes 1 and 2.

<p><i>Note</i>: P = Play episode; SF1 = Still-Face episode 1; SF2 = Still-Face episode 2; T_TOT = total respiratory cycle time; V_T = tidal volume; RSA = respiratory sinus arrhythmia; logRSA/V_Tc = logarithm of RSA normalized by V_T (logarithm(RSA/V_T)+1), adjusted for T_TOT; HR = heart rate.</p>†<p><i>p</i>-level of both <i>t</i>-tests for each index are Bonferroni-adjusted in this subgroup.</p

RSA, respiration, and heart rate across Still-Face Test episodes controlled for physical activity: Linear mixed model overall <i>F</i> tests (<i>df</i> = 2 or 4, 50.0 to 67.7), time-varying covariate activity effect <i>F</i>-tests (<i>df</i> = 1, 25.7 to 77.8) and <i>t</i>-tests (<i>df</i> = 52.4 to 77.7) testing changes from Play to Still-Face episode 1 and 2.

<p><i>Note:</i> V_T = tidal volume; RSA = respiratory sinus arrhythmia; T_TOT = total respiratory cycle time; HR = heart rate; RSA/V_T = RSA normalized by V_T; c = adjusted.</p><p>for total respiratory cycle time; logRSA = logarithm(RSA+1); logRSA/V_T = logarithm(RSA/V_T)+1.</p