Effects of Winter Ticks (\u3ci\u3eDermacentor albipictus\u3c/i\u3e) on the Reproduction of Utah Moose (\u3ci\u3eAlces alces shirasi\u3c/i\u3e)

Moose (Alces alces) are the largest and only solitary members of the deer family. The species can be found across many northern regions around the world. Moose are considered to have high intrinsic, recreational and ecological value. In recent years, there have been concerns about declining moose populations in portions of the species circumpolar range. Moose in Utah (Alces alces shirasi) belong to the Shiras subspecies, which is the smallest of the four subspecies found in North America. Utah moose are the southernmost naturally occurring moose population in the world. The Utah Division of Wildlife Resources (UDWR) has been concerned about possible moose population declines in Utah and with collaboration from Utah State University they initiated a study that began in 2013. The initial phase of the study estimated vital rates that included pregnancy, calving rates, calf recruitment and adult survival along with maternal age and body condition. This initial study found that adults had relatively high survival rates and maternal age and body condition influenced reproductive rates. In addition, fluctuating reproductive rates were identified a potential source of population instability. The research reported in this thesis represents the second phase of the moose study. My UWDR colleagues and I continued to collect data on moose vital rates and body condition. We also initiated a new effort to measure winter tick (Dermacentor albipictus) loads on radio-collared moose because observations and analyses during phase one of the study suggested that winter ticks were limiting population growth. In phase two of the study, I found evidence that winter ticks limited moose reproductive success. I found that poor body condition and high tick loads decreased rates of calving rates and calf survival. Pregnancy rates were affected but in unexpected ways. Results from this study will help wildlife managers in achieving management objectives and help make future decisions. These results highlight the potential for winter ticks to limit the population growth of moose in Utah via reduced reproductive success. My results also suggest that the impact of winter ticks on reproductive success is mediated to some extent by maternal body condition, such that moose in excellent condition are more likely to overcome the harmful effects of winter ticks on reproduction

Approach-iron play in high performance golf: From testing to tournament play

The capability of a golfer to record a low score depends upon well-developed abilities in each of the recognised on-course skill components (driving the ball off the tee, hitting approach-iron shots, hitting short-iron shots and putting). Despite approach-iron play being considered perhaps the most important and definitely the most practiced skill in the game, the ability to quantify the golfer’s ability to hit approach-iron shots in a controlled, off-course environment (eg. training) cannot yet be undertaken due to the lack of appropriate assessments. Such tools have considerable potential for use in both the field and in research for implementation in intervention studies, monitoring of athlete improvements over time as well as for use in talent identification programs. In this doctoral thesis which consisted of five studies, two testing instruments (Nine-Ball Skills Test and the Approach-Iron Skill Test) were developed to assess approach-iron ability, and their measurement properties (eg. reliability, validity) were determined. In the first study of this thesis, the Nine-Ball Skills Test was developed to assess the ability of golfers to shape and control the golf ball whilst attempting to maximise accuracy. In this study, golfers (elite, n = 14; high-level amateur, n = 16) hit a series of nine shots with a 5-iron with differing combinations of trajectory (straight, fade, draw) and height (normal, high, low) at a predetermined target area. The scoring system in this test predominantly relied upon the accuracy of each of these shots via a commonly used performance indicator called the percent error index (PEI). This is a measure which is based around the resultant distance the ball lands from the hole of which its components are determined by a real time Doppler radar launch monitor. In the second study, the Approach-Iron Skill Test was developed as a second measure of approach-iron ability in high performance golfers. The test differed from the protocol used in the first study in that players (elite, n = 26; high-level amateur, n = 23) were requested to hit a series of three straight shots using a club of their choice to a target placed at nine different distances (55, 65, 75, 85, 95, 105, 125, 145, 165 m). Each shot in this test was scored using the same PEI method as used in Study 1. For a test to be truly useful in the practical arena there needs to be evidence of its reliability and validity. Both the Nine-Ball Skills Test (Study 1) and the Approach-Iron Skill Test (Study 2) showed fair to good test re-test reliability respectively. Additionally, both tests were assessed for content validity and showed a very good level of construct validity (discriminative) between elite and high-level amateur players. In the third study, the ability of high-level amateur players to estimate the distances of approach-iron shots was investigated. This ability is important for high-level and elite players for the purposes of performance analysis and longitudinal collection of on-course, competition-based data. The main aim of this study was to assess the accuracy and precision of distance measurements made for approach-iron shots by high-level players in actual on-course play. Four measurements (Distance to Hole, Approach Shot Distance, Ball to Hole Distance and PEI) were assessed for their agreement with known distances obtained from a laser rangefinder and/or steel retractable tape measure during actual tournament play. All four measures investigated in the study showed a good level of agreement with known distances and reported low root mean square errors of prediction. In the fourth study, a systematic review of development and assessment methods of sporting skill outcome tests was undertaken. The objective of this study was to systematically review methodological quality, measurement properties (reliability, validity, responsiveness) as well as the feasibility of skill outcome tests. From analysis of the 22 studies that were selected after meeting the inclusion and exclusion criteria, it was found that the majority of studies were of adequate methodological quality. Further, whilst the studies adequately investigated test-retest reliability as well as content and construct validity, criterion-related validity (in particular, predictive validity) was not investigated in the majority of the assessments. Further, responsiveness was not investigated in the majority of studies and the reporting of feasibility considerations was minimal. A framework for sporting skill test design based on the findings of the review as well as existing measurement theory literature was also recommended for the benefit of future studies. In the final study of the thesis, the convergent and predictive validity of both the Nine-Ball Skills Test and the Approach-Iron Skill Test was investigated. A group of highlevel amateur golfers (n = 24) initially undertook both tests during the space of one week. Following this, data relating to their approach-iron performance in tournament scenarios (most notably, PEI) was collected over a 90-day period. A moderate correlation was noted between scores for both skills tests. Further, using generalised estimating equations (controlling for both the lie of the ball and shot distance) it was shown that both the Approach-Iron Skill Test and the Nine-Ball Skills Test were significant predictors of oncourse approach-iron performance. The Approach-Iron Skill Test showed a strong ability to predict on course approach-iron performance. The original and innovative studies within this thesis certainly have practical significance for golfers and coaches near, and inclusive of, the elite end of golf. The development of golf skill tests displaying good measurement properties help to provide useful tools for use by researchers, coaches and players to assess ability in approach-iron play. Future study should focus on developing similar protocols for the remaining components of performance to golf, using the development methods and measurement characteristics examined in this thesis as a template for design

Swing and launch parameters in approach-iron shots hit with varying height and trajectory in golf

The first aim of this study was to determine whether relationships existed between variability of swing and launch parameters and variability in shot outcome for straight golf shots. The second aim was to determine whether differences existed for swing and launch parameters in shots intentionally played with varying height and trajectory. Elite (n=20) and high-level amateur (n=22) golfers hit; 1) five straight shots of normal height and 2) nine shots of differing height (low, normal, high) and trajectory (straight, draw, fade). Variability of club attack angle, face angle and ball spin axis was significantly associated (

Pesticide Toxicity, Human Subjects, and the Environmental Protection Agency\u27s Dilemma

Should humans be used as subjects in research designed to determine the toxicity of pesticides? If so, under what conditions should they be used? If not, why not, given that human subject testing is common in research studies designed to determine the safety and efficacy of drugs? Should the EPA seek, or even accept, the results of such research in formulating the evidentiary base it uses in making decisions about pesticide registration? This article does not propose to answer these questions, but to illuminate the process by which they are addressed and offer some suggestions about how other such questions might be addressed in the future

A Qualitative Investigation into the Role of the Caddie in Elite-level Golf

The aim of this study was to determine the nature of the caddie\u27s role in the decision-making, psychological conditioning and tournament preparation of elite-level golfers. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 17 elite-level golfers (17-24 years; 15 males and 2 females) and 6 caddies (29-42 years; 6 males). Data were transcribed and subjected to thematic analysis techniques. Analysis produced four main findings: (1) the caddie\u27s role in decision-making was to provide information, assist in shot selection, and provide feedback of the golfer\u27s club selection; (2) the caddie\u27s role in psychological conditioning was to maintain the golfer\u27s high performance state using a variety of cognitive and attentional strategies; (3) caddies assist in tournament preparation by \u27mapping\u27 to plan strategy and record the important characteristics of the course prior to a competitive event; and (4) although the benefits of the caddie were recognised, golfers were dissatisfied with the quality of caddies available. The findings of this study provide guidelines for the best practice of caddies. Additionally, the development of a prerequisite document or \u27caddie contract\u27 was proposed as an appropriate solution to the issue of golfer discontent in caddie quality. The application of this knowledge has implications for National Sporting Organisations, performance enhancement in the sport, and the development of more effective working relationships between elite golfers and their caddies

Modelling the Progression of Male Swimmers’ Performances through Adolescence

Insufficient data on adolescent athletes is contributing to the challenges facing youth athletic development and accurate talent identification. The purpose of this study was to model the progression of male sub-elite swimmers’ performances during adolescence. The performances of 446 males (12–19 year olds) competing in seven individual events (50, 100, 200 m freestyle, 100 m backstroke, breaststroke, butterfly, 200 m individual medley) over an eight-year period at an annual international schools swimming championship, run under FINA regulations were collected. Quadratic functions for each event were determined using mixed linear models. Thresholds of peak performance were achieved between the ages of 18.5 ± 0.1 (50 m freestyle and 200 m individual medley) and 19.8 ± 0.1 (100 m butterfly) years. The slowest rate of improvement was observed in the 200 m individual medley (20.7%) and the highest in the 100 m butterfly (26.2%). Butterfly does however appear to be one of the last strokes in which males specialise. The models may be useful as talent identification tools, as they predict the age at which an average sub-elite swimmer could potentially peak. The expected rate of improvement could serve as a tool in which to monitor and evaluate benchmarks

How Confident Can We Be in Modelling Female Swimming Performance in Adolescence?

The purpose of this research was to determine the expected progression of adolescent female swimming performances using a longitudinal approach. The performances of 514 female swimmers (12–19 year olds) who participated in one or more FINA-regulated annual international schools’ swimming championships over an eight-year period were analysed. Quadratic functions for each of the seven individual events (50, 100, 200 m freestyle, 100 m backstroke, breaststroke, butterfly, 200 m individual medley) were determined using mixed linear models. The predicted threshold of peak performance ranged from 16.8 ± 0.2 (200 m individual medley) to 20.6 ± 0.1 (100 m butterfly) years of age, preceded by gradual rates of improvement (mean rate of 1.6% per year). However, following cross validation, only three events (100 m backstroke, 200 m individual medley and 200 m freestyle) produced reliable models. Identifying the factors that contribute to the progression of female performance in this transitory period of life remains challenging, not least since the onset of puberty is likely to have occurred prior to reaching 12 years of age, the minimum competition age for this championship