The bat fauna of Costa Rica’s Reserva Natural Absoluta Cabo Blanco and its implications for bat conservation.

Reserva Natural Absoluta Cabo Blanco, located at the southern tip of northwestern Costa Rica’s Nicoya Peninsula, was established in 1963 and is the country’s oldest nationally protected reserve. Because the climate of the Nicoya Peninsula is ideal for human habitation, the peninsula has been occupied for millennia and is a heavily impacted landscape. The region also is one of the most poorly studied in Central America in terms of biotic diversity. We initiated a multiyear survey of bats in the reserve and the adjacent Refugio de Vida Silvestre Cueva Los Murciélagos to quantify species diversity, abundances, habitat use, seasonality, and reproduction. By surveying bats during 5 rainy seasons and 4 dry seasons from July 1999 through February 2006, we address the following questions: Which species of bats are present in the area? Are the bat communities the same in 3 different habitats—coastal forest, inland forest, and limestone caves? Are the species diversity and abundances of bats in the rainy season similar to those in the dry season? Can we discern seasonal patterns of reproduction? Are the species diversity and abundances of bats at Cabo Blanco (a tropical moist forest in the Holdridge Life Zone classification) similar to those in the nearby tropical dry forest at Parque Nacional Palo Verde? What are the conservation implications of the bat assemblages found in this regenerating forest? Using mist nets, searching for roosting bats, and an acoustical survey, 39 species of bats are documented in the area, including 5 emballonurids, 4 molossids, 1 mormoopid, 1 noctilionid, 21 phyllostomids, and 7 vespertilionids. The 2 most commonly captured bats, Carollia perspicillata and Artibeus jamaicensis, are abundant in both the inland and coastal forests and both are more abundant in the rainy season than in the dry season. Several species have clear habitat preferences, at least during the seasons in which we netted (Glossophaga soricina and Uroderma bilobatum along the coast and Trachops cirrhosus inland). The largest carnivores (Noctilio leporinus, Chrotopterus auritus, Phyllostomus hastatus, Trachops cirrhosus, and Vampyrum spectrum) are present, but the small and middle-sized predatory bats (Micronycteris, Lophostoma, and others) are poorly represented both in terms of diversity and abundance. We captured twice as many bats per hour of effort in the inland forest as we did in the coastal forest. The caves of Refugio de Vida Silvestre Cueva Los Murciélagos have 4 species of bats (Balantiopteryx plicata, Saccopteryx bilineata, Desmodus rotundus, and Phyllostomus hastatus) that are year-round residents. Several species seem to be equally abundant in both seasons, including Balantiopteryx plicata, Saccopteryx bilineata, Noctilio leporinus, Artibeus watsoni, Desmodus rotundus, Glossophaga soricina, Phyllostomus hastatus, Trachops cirrhosus, Lasiurus ega, and Myotis nigricans. Our impression is that some species are more common during the rainy season than the dry season, but more data are needed to substantiate this assertion. Bats in the caves were equally abundant during each of our 8 cave surveys. Desmodus rotundus is the only species for which our data suggest year-round reproduction; we observed scrotal males, pregnant females, and juveniles during each of our visits to Cabo Blanco. Other species are present year-round but have seasonal reproductive activity. We captured Artibeus watsoni and Carollia perspicillata in both seasons but have seen pregnant females only during the rainy season. Carollia perspicillata and Artibeus jamaicensis are the 2 most commonly captured bats at both Cabo Blanco and the nearby Parque Nacional Palo Verde. The species records and abundances of several other species differed between the sites, however. Species that are abundant at Palo Verde, but not yet recorded from Cabo Blanco, include Pteronotus davyi, Pteronotus gymnonotus, Carollia subrufa, Centurio senex, and Natalus stramineus. Phyllostomus hastatus is abundant at Cabo Blanco but not known from Palo Verde. Although both sites are relatively close together in the northern Pacific lowlands of Costa Rica, Cabo Blanco is substantially wetter, and the associated differences in vegetation may be driving bat distributional patterns. We provide a number of new records and ecological information for bats on the Nicoya Peninsula and document that bat diversity and abundances can be substantial in regenerating forest. Several of the most commonly captured bat species are seed dispersers and may be critical to forest regeneration

Mammals of Cabo Blanco: History, diversity, and conservation after 45 years of regrowth of a Costa Rican dry forest

Reserva Natural Absoluta Cabo Blanco, a strongly seasonal deciduous forest located at the southernmost tip of northwestern Costa Rica's Nicoya Peninsula, was established in 1963 and is the country's oldest nationally protected reserve. The peninsula has been occupied for millennia and is a heavily impacted landscape, and, unfortunately, its biotic diversity is among the most poorly studied in Central America. As part of multiyear studies of the flora and fauna of the region, we assess the changes in vegetation and the terrestrial mammal community from earlier times to the present day. Through historical records, interviews with long-term residents of the area, and our studies over the past decade, we document changes in forest cover, settlement, and land use, and assess the changes in species diversity and in mammal species’ abundance. We then discuss the ecology of the mammal species on the peninsula, emphasizing the role that humans have played in influencing population levels. After 45 years of protection, the forest structure of the 3100 ha reserve differs markedly from that observed in the early 20th Century and it is quite heterogeneous. Species diversity of both the native vegetation and the mammals is substantial in the regenerating forest. The known mammal fauna included at least 37 species of non-flying mammals and 39 species of bats. Six species (Geoffroy's Spider Monkey, Giant Anteater, White-lipped Peccary, Central American Red Brocket Deer, Baird's Tapir, and Jaguar) have been extirpated from the reserve. Poaching of game species continues and will be difficult to eliminate completely. Nevertheless, with regenerating habitats, coupled with protection of wildlife, reestablishment of the reserve's native species has been dramatic both in terms of species diversity and abundance. The reserve is not in a defaunated condition. Many mammalian frugivores, seed dispersers, and/or seed predators are common and most top mammalian predators are present. We present several testable hypotheses regarding the significance of this mammalian community in the context of other Neotropical forest mammal and plant communities. Rapid expansion of tourism in this region has the potential to affect the reserve adversely. In recent years, the reserve has served as an important site for teaching tropical biology courses. Small reserves, such as Cabo Blanco, even if not connected to larger protected areas through corridors, provide critical habitat for native flora and fauna, a source of genetic stock, and valuable regional teaching and research sites

Group dynamics, behavior, and current and historical abundance of peccaries in Costa Rica’s Caribbean lowlands

The abundances and habitat preferences of peccaries in Neotropical forests are important to understand because these keystone species influence many aspects of the ecosystem. In the Caribbean lowlands of Costa Rica, we conducted walking surveys for ~2 years to study the behavior and population trends of collared peccaries (Pecari tajacu), and found that peccaries are abundant at La Selva Biological Station and overall, detection rates were relatively constant through time. A stable estimate of detection rates was achieved only after 7–9 months of surveying. We found no habitat preferences between primary and secondary forest, yet there were some differences in group dynamics—group radius was larger and sighting distance was greater in primary forest, whereas the number of singletons was higher in secondary forest. More peccaries were seen closer to the laboratory clearing than at greater distances, for a variety of probable reasons: habituation to humans, lower predation and hunting pressure, and various environmental and habitat factors. Peccary groups had spatially clumped distributions across the landscape and were more active diurnally than nocturnally. Collared peccary densities are relatively high at La Selva compared to other Neotropical sites, with the exception of Barro Colorado Island. We combined our data with a review of the historical literature to assess changes in the populations of peccaries in the Caribbean lowlands. We found that collared peccaries have likely increased in abundance at La Selva, seemingly a few years after the extirpation of white-lipped peccaries (Tayassu pecari), which were abundant in the area 40–50 years ago. An understanding of the group dynamics, behavior, and habitat preference of collared peccaries is essential for management decisions and conservation efforts. Additionally, assessment of population changes should be carefully considered in a historical context, with a particular focus on how the populations of the 2 peccary species have changed, and how these species might differentially affect their environment. Resumen--Entender la abundancia y la preferencia de hábitat de las 2 especies de sainos en bosques neotropicales es importante porque estas especies clave afectan muchos aspectos del ecosistema. En las tierras bajas del Caribe costarricense, llevamos a cabo muestreos a pie durante ~2 años para estudiar el comportamiento y tendencias poblacionales del saino (Pecari tajacu), y encontramos que son abundantes en la Estación Biológica La Selva y las tasas de detección fueron relativamente constantes a través del tiempo. Se obtuvo una tasa estable de detección después de 7–9 meses de muestreos. Las tasas de detección fueron similares en bosque primario y secundario, sin embargo, se encontraron algunas diferencias en la dinámica de grupo (el radio de distribución del grupo era más grande y distancia de observación fue mayor en bosques primarios, mientras que el número de individuos solitarios fue mayor en bosques secundarios). Más sainos fueron vistos alrededor de las zonas abiertas rodeando el laboratorio, debido a varias posibles razones: habituación a la presencia de seres humanos, menos presión por depredación o cacería y otros factores ambientales o de hábitat. Los sainos están distribuidos de forma aglomerados y son más activos de día que de noche. Las densidades de sainos son relativamente altas en comparación con otros sitios neotropicales, con excepción de la Isla de Barro Colorado. El saino probablemente ha aumentado en abundancia en La Selva, aparentemente unos años después de la extirpación del cariblanco (Tayassu pecari), que eran abundantes en el área hace unos 40–50 años. El conocimiento de la dinámica de grupos, comportamiento y preferencias de hábitat del saino es esencial para las decisiones de manejo y los esfuerzos de conservación. Además, la evaluación de los cambios poblacionales debe considerarse cuidadosamente en un contexto histórico, con especial atención a cómo han cambiado las poblaciones del saino y cariblanco, y cómo estas especies afectan su ambiente

High, usual and impaired functioning in community-dwelling older men and women: Findings from the MacArthur Foundation Research Network on successful aging

The objective of this study is to determine the range of complex physical and cognitive abilities of older men and women functioning at high, medium and impaired ranges and to determine the psychosocial and physiological conditions that discriminate those in the high functioning group from those functioning at middle or impaired ranges. The subjects for this study were drawn from men and women aged 70-79 from 3 Established Populations for the Epidemiologic Study of the Elderly (EPESE) programs in East Boston MA, New Haven CT, and Durham County NC screened on the basis of criteria of physical and cognitive function. In 1988, 4030 men and women were screened as part of their annual EPESE interview. 1192 men and women met criteria for "high functioning". Age and sex-matched subjects were selected to represent the medium (n = 80) and low (n = 82) functioning groups. Physical and cognitive functioning was assessed from performance-based examinations and self-reported abilities. Physical function measures focused on balance, gait, and upper body strength. Cognitive exams assessed memory, language, abstraction, and praxis. Significant differences for every performance-based examination of physical and cognitive function were observed across functioning groups. Low functioning subjects were almost 3 times as likely to have an income of [les]$5000 compared to the high functioning group. They were less likely to have completed high school. High functioning subjects smoked cigarettes less and exercised more than others. They had higher levels of DHEA-S and peak expiratory flow rate. High functioning elders were more likely to engage in volunteer activities and score higher on scales of self-efficacy, mastery and report fewer psychiatric symptoms.Peer Reviewedhttp://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/31100/1/0000778.pd

Treatment- and Population-Dependent Activity Patterns of Behavioral and Expression QTLs

Genetic control of gene expression and higher-order phenotypes is almost invariably dependent on environment and experimental conditions. We use two families of recombinant inbred strains of mice (LXS and BXD) to study treatment- and genotype-dependent control of hippocampal gene expression and behavioral phenotypes. We analyzed responses to all combinations of two experimental perturbations, ethanol and restraint stress, in both families, allowing for comparisons across 8 combinations of treatment and population. We introduce the concept of QTL activity patterns to characterize how associations between genomic loci and traits vary across treatments. We identified several significant behavioral QTLs and many expression QTLs (eQTLs). The behavioral QTLs are highly dependent on treatment and population. We classified eQTLs into three groups: cis-eQTLs (expression variation that maps to within 5 Mb of the cognate gene), syntenic trans-eQTLs (the gene and the QTL are on the same chromosome but not within 5 Mb), and non-syntenic trans-eQTLs (the gene and the QTL are on different chromosomes). We found that most non-syntenic trans-eQTLs were treatment-specific whereas both classes of syntenic eQTLs were more conserved across treatments. We also found there was a correlation between regions along the genome enriched for eQTLs and SNPs that were conserved across the LXS and BXD families. Genes with eQTLs that co-localized with the behavioral QTLs and displayed similar QTL activity patterns were identified as potential candidate genes associated with the phenotypes, yielding identification of novel genes as well as genes that have been previously associated with responses to ethanol

Assessing Reliability, Heritability and General Cognitive Ability in a Battery of Cognitive Tasks for Laboratory Mice

This report includes the first sibling study of mouse behavior, and presents evidence for a heritable general cognitive ability (g) factor influencing cognitive batteries. Data from a population of male and female outbred mice (n = 84), and a replication study of male sibling pairs (n = 167) are reported. Arenas employed were the T-maze, the Morris water maze, the puzzle box, the Hebb-Williams maze, object exploration, a water plus-maze, and a second food-puzzle arena. The results show a factor structure consistent with the presence of g in mice. Employing one score per arena, this factor accounts for 41% of the variance in the first study (or 36% after sex regression) and 23% in the second, where this factor also showed sibling correlations of 0.17-0.21, which translates into an upper-limit heritability estimate of around 40%. Reliabilities of many tasks are low and consequently set an even lower ceiling for inter-arena or sibling correlations. Nevertheless, the factor structure is seen to remain fairly robust across permutations of the battery composition and the current findings fit well with other recent studie

GxE Interaction Influences Trajectories of Hand Grip Strength

Age-related decline in grip strength predicts later life disability, frailty, lower well-being and cognitive change. While grip strength is heritable, genetic influence on change in grip strength has been relatively ignored, with non-shared environmental influence identified as the primary contributor in a single longitudinal study. The extent to which gene-environment interplay, particularly gene-environment interactions, contributes to grip trajectories has yet to be examined. We considered longitudinal grip strength measurements in seven twin studies of aging in the Interplay of Genes and Environment across Multiple Studies consortium. Growth curve parameters were estimated for same-sex pairs, aged 34–99 (N = 10,681). Fisher’s test for mixture distribution of within-monozygotic twin-pair differences (N = 1724) was performed on growth curve parameters. We observed significant gene-environment interaction on grip strength trajectories. Finally, we compared the variability of within-pair differences of growth curve parameters by APOE haplotypes. Though not statistically significant, the results suggested that APOE ɛ2ɛ2/ɛ2ɛ3 haplotypes might buffer environmental influences on grip strength trajectories.peerReviewe

Averting biodiversity collapse in tropical forest protected areas

The rapid disruption of tropical forests probably imperils global biodiversity more than any other contemporary phenomenon¹⁻³. With deforestation advancing quickly, protected areas are increasingly becoming final refuges for threatened species and natural ecosystem processes. However, many protected areas in the tropics are themselves vulnerable to human encroachment and other environmental stresses⁴⁻⁹. As pressures mount, it is vital to know whether existing reserves can sustain their biodiversity. A critical constraint in addressing this question has been that data describing a broad array of biodiversity groups have been unavailable for a sufficiently large and representative sample of reserves. Here we present a uniquely comprehensive data set on changes over the past 20 to 30 years in 31 functional groups of species and 21 potential drivers of environmental change, for 60 protected areas stratified across the world’s major tropical regions. Our analysis reveals great variation in reserve ‘health’: about half of all reserves have been effective or performed passably, but the rest are experiencing an erosion of biodiversity that is often alarmingly widespread taxonomically and functionally. Habitat disruption, hunting and forest-product exploitation were the strongest predictors of declining reserve health. Crucially, environmental changes immediately outside reserves seemed nearly as important as those inside in determining their ecological fate, with changes inside reserves strongly mirroring those occurring around them. These findings suggest that tropical protected areas are often intimately linked ecologically to their surrounding habitats, and that a failure to stem broad-scale loss and degradation of such habitats could sharply increase the likelihood of serious biodiversity declines.Keywords: Ecology, Environmental scienc