Late Roman and early Germanic Iron Age grave finds from Jutland. Tendencies in social development

Late Roman and early Germanic Iron Age grave finds from Jutland. Tendencies in social development Introduction Much new material has been adduced over the last two decades to illuminate the period late Roman Iron Age and early Germanic Iron Age (c. 50-550 AD) (1). Farm and village have thus become prominent in the finds, and the number of graves has been much increased (2-5). Re-examination of booty sacrifices is also beginning to give us an indication of how war was waged at that time and of where the enemy came from (6). The last find group comprises votive finds and hoards. The new finds in this category are from Gudme in southern Funen and Sorte Muld on Bornholm (7). Both localities must have been political centres with sacral functions. On the coast at Gudme a unique find of a trading centre is also currently being excavated. This locality near Lundeborg has so far revealed various workshop activities (8, 9). Archaeologically, there is thus now a considerably better chance of illuminating the important social changes that i.a. written sources indicate (10-13). Based on the grave finds, aspects of the social and political development are evaluated in the following (14). The primary investigation confines itself to Jutland. Within this area, the grave finds are divided into groups on the basis of their content of artefacts. The grave goods occur in standard sets, and these equipment categories are seen as expressions of the social position of the dead. In this manner the way is paved for an evaluation of the section of population which occupies the graves and of social structure in general. Prior to the separation of categories, the regional variation and chronological development of the area must be illuminated, however. Regional groups In Jutland there are in the late Roman and early Germanic periods of the Iron Age two major areas which differ in a number of ways. These two groups are found in north, and in south and central Jutland respectively (henceforth termed "northern" and "southern" groups). They can be distinguished on the following points: a) the incidence of plank and bole coffins and stone cists (Fig. 1), b) the incidence of cremation graves and in particular urn graves with urns of types D, K, and B (pottery types, see above, p. 113) (Fig. 2), c) the presence of pot types F, H, and J1+2 in the graves (Fig. 3), d) the occurrence of pot types G and C in inhumation graves; in the late Roman period, type C is most frequent in the graves of north Jutland; in the early Germanic period, C and G often occur in pairs in the graves of north Jutland, and singly in the southern group, e) the distribution of fibulas of Almgren group VII, series 1 and 2, and Almgren group VII, series 3, with or without octagonal bow section (16) (Fig. 4), f) differences in the form of the long-houses (Fig. 5): in south and central Jutland, the dwelling section comprises the span between five western pairs of posts, whilst this does not as a rule seem to be the case in north Jutland (17, 18), g) deposition of hoards and single finds in wet and dry areas respectively (19) (Fig. 6). The duration of the above-mentioned differences in artefacts, and structures, in find circumstances, or in find combinations is shown in Fig. 7. If the distributions of the regionally disposed features are collated, a picture like Fig. 8 is obtained. Hereafter it is possible to distinguish between a northern and a southern group in relation to a line like the one indicated along the district boundaries. As a final support for the regional groupings, variations in pottery shape and decoration can be adduced. The type G pottery is to this end divided into four phases, anticipating the chronological analysis (20). Phases a to c cover the late Roman Iron Age, phase d the early Germanic Iron Age (Fig. 10). The appearance of the pottery is compared by means of a correspondence analysis for a series of ornamental features and pattern combinations (21). The subject area has been divided up as shown in Fig. 9. The correspondence analysis compares the similarities and differences within the total amount of pottery from one area to another. The pots and variables used are shown in appendix A. The geographical distribution of the pots and a plot of the results of the correspondence analysis for the individual phases are seen in Fig. 11. The correspondence analysis assigns numerical values to the similarities between areas. The eight actual values are shown on the maps, and isolines are drawn between them. The most important result is that in all phases the greatest dissimilarity is between a northern and a southern group as separated on the O-lines and the close cluster of isolines around these. In fig. 12 a mean O-line has been constructed. This is almost congruent with the division of the area carried out on the basis of the various structure and artefact types, c. fig. 8. For examples of northern and southern group pottery from phases b and d respectively, cf. figs. 13 and 14. The further geographical definition of the local groups has not been subjected here to any independent analysis (22). However, there is apparently a sharp archaeological dividing line close to the present Danish-German border (23, 24). The line dividing the local groups in Jutland follows an extensive tract of wer areas, but it is argued that the consequent reduced possibility of contact is too simple an explanation of the differences. Nor do I believe that different production centres and their markets lie behind the distribution. If so, these areas are also subordinate to the overall economic, social and political conditions in the region, cf. Helgö in the Mälar Valley of Sweden (25). The regional groups of Jutland are on the other hand an expression of differences in the cultural values and norms of the different societies. Thus it is possible that there are economic differences between the areas, and quite clearly there are religious, social and political differences (26). Especially with respect to the social and political differences, the grave finds are informative, and in the following the difference in the cultural values and norms of the different regions will be illuminated. Chronology The coming classification of the grave finds builds on a typological-chronological analysis of the pottery. In the graves, a wide selection of pottery types is represented (27) (Figs. 15 and 16). The chronological analysis has been performed primarily on the type G and partly on the type C vessels. Correspondence analysis is again used. The results will be plotted in scattergrams with two axes. Each vessel is an independent entity, and its shape and decoration the variables on which the comparison is based. If the diagrams obtained are to be interpreted as showing a perfect seriation, entities and variables must be distributed in a parabola around the centre of the first two axes (29). Chronological division of grave finds of north Jutland The data matrix with the list of the 105 vessels and their shape and decoration elements is seen in appendix C (30). The first two axes of the correspondence analysis are shown in Fig. 17. A neat arced distribution representing the chronological development is seen. The type G vessels of north Jutland, which did not find a place in the primary analysis, can be dated on the basis of their form. In Fig. 18, the two first axes of the correspondence analysis are again plotted, but with only the units (vessels) represented. There is an indication in the diagram of which shape each pot can be referred to. The following shapes are employed (31, 32) (for letter designations of definitions, see Appendix B). The vessel shapes gradually change in the diagram Fig. 18 starting with shape B in the top left corner and ending with H1 and M1 at the top right corner of the curve. On this basis, all pots can be dated relatively on the basis of shape. There is merely one shape – N1 - which was not represented among the vessels selected for analysis. On the basis of artefact combinations in the graves, shapes B, C, V, M, and N1 are seen to belong to the late Roman Iron Age, F1 to be transitional to the early Germanic period, and H1 and M1 to be pure early Germanic. Henceforth, the following phase designations will be employed: phase a (vessel form B), phase b (D), phase c (V, M, N1) and phase d (H1, M1). Type C vessels, which are also relatively frequent, change markedly from the late Roman Iron Age to the early Germanic Iron Age (Fig. 19) (32). The chronological development is supported by horizontal stratigraphy at the Sejlflod cemetery (Fig. 20). This burial ground has its oldest graves centrally in grave group 1. After this, grave group 1 expands and the central part of grave group 2 arises. Finally, the east and west wings of grave group 2 are established. Chronological division of grave finds of central and south Jutland The data matrix with a list of the 105 pots used, with their form and decoration elements, is seen in Appendix D. The first two axes of the correspondence analysis are plotted in Fig. 23. The plot here, too, shows a nice arced distribution representing the chronological development (33). The southern group's type G vessels, which were not selected for the primary analysis, will be dated on the basis of their neck shape. In Fig. 24, the two first axes of the correspondence analysis are shown with only the units (vessels) marked. The diagram indicates which neck shape each vessel exhibits. The following neck shapes are employed. The variations in the material with respect to the shape of vessel necks are apparent from Figs. 21-22. Neck shape changes gradually from form A at the top left corner of the diagram through forms J, U, and E I, to end with H1 at the top right corner (35). As will be seen later, forms A, J, and U belong to the late Roman period (hereafter designated phases a, b, and c), E1 and H1 to the early Germanic period (designated phase d). Type C pots become in the early Germanic period in shape and decoration like the type G vessels - only the presence of the handle distinguished the types. The younger vessels thus show a strongly reflexed neck, cf. the form groups E1 and H1 (28). The chronological course is supported by the horizontal disposition of groups within the cemeteries. In Fig. 25 it is shown which phases (pottery groups) are represented in the localities treated. At Møllebakken, Næsbjerg, Stenderup and Hjemsted, marked chronological positions are seen (34) (Figs. 26-29). Pottery phases of the regional groups and the absolute chronology A large part of the graves of both the northern and the southern group can thus be dated on their content of vessels, and the analysis results can be illustrated with the vessels shown in Fig. 30. A synchronization of the pottery phases of the northern and southern groups and a determination of the phases in relation to the primary chronological system can occur on the basis of the fibulas in the graves. If these are looked at for a moment without considering the regional differences, it is seen that there is a change in the commonest types throughout the period as shown in Figs. 31 and 32. At the beginning of the late Roman period, the fibulas of Almgren group VII, series 2 and 3, are the most commonly occurring (36-38). They are replaced by fibulas of type Gudumholm, Haraldsted and Nydam. The designation "Gudumholm fibula" is used here of crossbow fibulas with short spiral (maximum 6 turns) and a wire bow. The bow continues onto the foot, which tapers to the front. The catch is low and square, perhaps rhombic/trapezoid. The latest type of the simple fibulas comprises the cruciform fibulas. As far as the display fibulas are concerned, the oldest part of the sequence is characterized by rosette fibulas, the later part by sheet-metal fibulas. Around the transition from phase b to c, ornamental fibulas with double spiral like the slightly later sheet fibulas, but without the head plate (39, 40) occur (Fig. 33). The sheet fibulas proper are seen in a form with rectangular or semicircular head plate in most of phase c. The same type continues in phase d but now only with rectangular head plate and with animal heads in profile at the top of the foot plate. The late development within fibulas of phase d and the appearance of relief fibulas cannot be illuminated on the basis of the grave finds from Jutland. Combinations of pots and fibulas in the graves of Jutland can warrant a synchronization of the phase divisions of the regional groups and a correlation between these and the primary chronological system (41, 42) (Fig. 34). It is uncertain whether the entire framework of the later Roman and early Germanic Iron Age is filled out with the registered material (43, 45). The late early Germanic period seems, however, at any rate to be represented in the southern group, cf. the youngest graves of the Hjemsted cemetery with peripheral placing and with typologically late vessels (Fig. 35). Parallels to this are known from Onsvala in southwestern Scania in combination with a relief fibula (44) (Fig. 36). The local chronological division does not coincide with the primary chronological system's phases C1, C2, C3, and D, cf. diagram p. 141 (46). Phase a is a part of C1 , but whether C1a is represented is uncertain. Phase b also contains C1b material, but the main part belongs to C2. Phase c starts in late C2 and covers all of C3 until the cruciform fibulas appear. Phase d corresponds to D. Social analysis It remains to illuminate the variation in grave goods and its relation to the social position of the dead. To this end, the actual graves have been divided from the outset according to sex, and the social groupings it has been possible to distinguish testify in particular to status differences within the graves. Features are also seen in certain of the men's categories which must be associated with the political leadership. The precise significance of the different categories of grave furnishings must be evaluated on the basis of the grave goods themselves, of the geographical distribution of the graves, and of their relative positions within the cemeteries. The social meaning of the different categories is confirmed, for example, by the circumstance that the cemeteries are established with regard to these. The actual interpretation must likewise contain an evaluation of the graves' further importance in society and the concrete, historical context. This approach builds on a long tradition of social studies based on grave content and make-up. In particular it has its roots in the principles formulated by A. Saxe and L. R. Binford at the beginning of the 1970s (47). They believed that the graves reflected both some of the social relationships of the deceased, and the size and type of society which recognized the position of the dead person. A large number of studies up through the 1970s and early 1980s followed the same principles (48). More recent investigations focus, however, also on how graves (and material culture seen in broad perspective) have a symbolic value and are actively employed by different population groups in continuation of social ideology (49). The number of graves and their representativity The geographical distribution of the grave finds of Jutland is shown on the map Fig. 37 with the designations for the larger cemeteries (more than ten graves) (50). The grave finds whose pottery or other furnishings can be phase-dated comprise 379 finds or 48.7 % of the registered number (51). This figure can be increased by dating a number of graves from the Sejlflod, Stenderup and Næsbjerg cemeteries on the basis of horizontal stratigraphy, cf. the maps Figs. 20, 27, and 28 (52). Categories of grave goods In the following treatment, an attempt has been made to evaluate the integrity of the graves. In the diagrams, Sand (SJ thus respectively designate grave finds that contain the complete furnishings minus the part that is missing due to natural decomposition, and finds where only a part of the normal inventory is thought to be present. A grave designated US can contain objects from several graves, and a parenthesis around the entire grave designation indicates that the find is under conservation and the information therefore deficient. In the following classification of the various categories of grave goods, the characteristic objects do not usually comprise the full furnishings of the grave. Certain types are thus either common to all categories or occur so rarely that they are omitted from the survey. The former involve the commonest types of pottery, iron knives without special decoration of the haft, and bone combs. Graves of the northern group, phases a and b The categories of the women's graves are characterized by a qualitative and quantitative decline in grave goods from category 1 to category 3 (Fig. 38). It can also be remarked that cat. 1 graves do not contain pottery, and that only the grave from Hasseris Grusgrav has a container, but in the form of a wooden bucket (Fig. 39). In the men's graves, three categories can be distinguished (56) (Fig. 40, 42). Cat. 1 comprises a single grave with a bracelet of gold, a so-called serpent ring. These rings were presumably favours received for faithful military service (54). They are always found in graves devoid of weapons but well endowed with imported bronze and glass vessels (55). The cat. 2 graves all have weapons and also often contain gold rings and imported goods (Fig. 41). Cat. 3 men's graves are characterized by axes and arrows. In addition there is a small group of quite rich graves which due to uncertain find context unfortunately cannot be assigned to a particular sex. These graves contain gold rings and in some cases imported goods and are presumably in particular men's graves - perhaps a "civilian" counterpart to the weapon graves. Only two small graves must be children's graves. In relation to the amount of material, the categories of men's and women's graves have an even geographical distribution (Fig. 43). The graves of the Lundegårde cemetery are assumed to be largely contemporaneous within the framework of phases a and b. In Fig. 44, the presence of men's and women's sections is seen. The cat. 2 women's graves keep to themselves in the southern part of the site, while children's graves are scattered. The last-named can here also be recognized from the grave goods, which comprise a pot of type H, perhaps with broken-off handle. A few beads also occur. Graves of the northern group, phase c Besides containing the largest amount of ornaments and costume, the cat. 1 women's graves are characterized by some special types of ornaments, viz. silver pendants, berloques and mosaic beads (Fig. 46). Very large bead necklaces are also seen. The graves also contain special pottery shapes, and wooden buckets or glass beakers, perhaps merely symbolized by glass sherds, whereas the other types have only the ordinary pottery types. Examples of a well-endowed woman's and man's grave are seen in Fig. 45. The category 3 graves are very sparsely furnished, and a few have been identified as women's graves only by the position of the body. Men's graves cat. 1 are like the women's characterized by special types of containers such as wooden buckets, imported metal and glass beakers and special types of pots (Fig. 47). In addition arrows and axes occur, and valuable objects such as game-pieces, gold rings and a small pendant silver case. Belt mountings and accessories are held in common with cat. 2. A few cat. 2 graves contain a lance or spearhead. The cat. 3 men's graves contain very few objects, and as for the women's graves, a few can be identified only by the position of the body, Fig. 48. Only a few men's graves can be distinguished outside the Sejlflod cemetery, but the women's categories are evenly distributed (Fig. 48). In phase c, the Sejlflod cemetery has to be employed in an evaluation of the relative position of the different categories. The early phase c graves are found in grave group 1, the late ones in the centre of grave group 2 (Fig. 20) (57). Men's and women's graves are seen to be placed in separate sections (Fig. 49). The sex-determined graves are centrally placed on the site in relation to the contemporaneous graves as a whole. Children's graves can be separated both by size and by grave goods. The children's grave goods do not contain the sex-determined objects or pot type C, whereas tripartite miniature beakers and pot type H (as at Lundegårde) are seen, perhaps with a small knife or a couple of beads. The children's graves lie close to the sex-determined graves of the adults. In addition there is a group of adults' graves without particularly characteristic grave goods peripherally in the cemetery. The cat. 1 women's and men's graves are in grave group 1 centrally placed, while in grave group 2 they show a greater tendency to collect in the southern central part - women to the east of the open place, men to the west of it. Cat. 3 graves are as a rule placed at the edge of the sex-determined sections. Graves of the northern group, phase d Three categories of both men's and women's graves can be distinguished. Women's graves are, as in the earlier phases, characterized by gradually decreasing amounts of ornaments and costume accessories (Fig. 50). The particular ornament types of this phase's cat. 1 graves are peltate pendants and other peltate ornaments. As far as men's graves are concerned, two cat. 1 graves without weapons and one with weapons are seen (Fig. 51). The graves have iron shears, wooden caskets and a wooden bucket with some costume accessories. Cat. 2 can still have razors and belt buckles with back-plates. whereas cat. 3 contains