Talus-and-gorge ice caves in the northeastern United States past to present

The focus of this article is both a region and a type of cave not typically associated with ice caves. Nevertheless, both the region and the type play an important role in American ice-cave research. Talus-and-gorge ice caves in the northeastern United States can be used as climate indicators for a whole region; and therefore, they are the target of this young field of research. Ice caves, in general, are sensitive climatopes that can serve as excellent indicators for short and long term changes in the climate of a region, principally because of shifts between phases of increasing ice growth and melting during a year and over time. This research started with an investigation of known talus-and-gorge ice caves, followed by environmental monitoring of selected caves with perennial ice that were equipped with temperature sensors recorded over four years. This is one of the world’s longest high-resolution climatologic monitoring record of such caves. In addition, the height of the ice was surveyed annually at a time when ice would most likely be at its minimum, the start of November. This allowed for investigation of the annual changes and the influence of the temperature over the previous year. Some predictions for the future of the ice caves and the whole region could be deduced from the data. At the moment, there is no sign of either a renewed increase in the number of talus-and-gorge ice caves or an increase in ice accumulation within the existing ones

Dynamic Climatologic Processes of Barometric Cave Systems Using the Example of Jewel Cave and Wind Cave in South Dakota, USA

Jewel and Wind Cave are two big barometric cave systems in SouthDakota, USA. The entrances of Jewel and Wind Cave are roughly 50 km apart, and until now it is unknown whether their entrances belong to two separate caves or to one muchlarger cave system. One possibility for testing these two competing hypotheses is to measure and analyse the climatic conditions in the vicinity of these entrances and within the caves in detail. In this context, the thermal conditions and air currents are crucial. These in turn can be characterised by the spatial and temporal patterns of the dynamics of air entering and leaving throughthe respective entrances; even thoughthese dynamics are coupled to atmospheric pressure fluctuations outside the caves, they differ for different cave systems and provide a “fingerprint” that has implications for the size and structure of individual cave systems. To give an example, Jewel and Wind Cave as the second and fourth-largest cave systems on earthshow some similarities, but many more noticeable differences regarding their climatological behaviour, despite their close proximity to eachother. The last big measurement campaigns on the climatic systems of the two barometric caves were carried out by Herb and Jan Conn in the 1960s, (Conn 1966). Despite their elementary work, the technical possibilities were very limited in those days. The self-constructed mechanical measurement equipment could only be used for basic measurements. Herb Conn was still able to identify the basic mechanism very clearly. He also carried out a number of different calculations on barometric air flow that remain important up to the present day. During the last 40 years, rapid electronic development has enabled us to use instruments that are far more precise and sensitive. The use of ultrasonic anemometers and dataloggers enables us to take more exact long term measurements. An extensive measurement programme was started in 2001 to fulfil several researchaims, and we are now in a position to decipher the different fingerpr

Reports on ice caves in literature from the twelfth to the middle of the twentieth century

The main goal of this paper is to summarize the history and the progress of ice cave research in the northern hemisphere as an introduction to the following papers about modern research in the U.S. We focus on the earliest descriptions of ice caves starting from the twelfth century, a cave with ice in India, as well as the beginning of modern ice cave research in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Moreover, we give a short overview of the different theories about ice caves over the course of time. The article is an introduction to the much younger ice cave research in the U.S., which will be the topic of a second paper in this journal

Ice cave research of the United States

Natural and anthropogenic ice caves are spread out on the North American continent, especially in the United States. Many of these climate archives are already forgotten, no longer contain ice due to climatic changes, or are expected to lose their ice soon. However, sources from the nineteenth and twentieth centuries suggest the former density of ice caves in this nation. A synopsis of the American ice cave research from its beginnings in the early nineteenth century to the present is the focus of this article. A priori, basic terms and problems of ice cave research are addressed and elucidated. Subsequently, climatic conditions that facilitate or counteract the buildup of cave ice over the course of a year are presented. On the basis of an ice cave classification, different ice cave types are outlined and analyzed in their distribution in the United States. The accompanying map illustrating the geographic locations of caves in the mainland United States represents the first version of an American ice cave distribution

Dynamic Climatologic Processes of Barometric Cave Systems Using the Example of Jewel Cave and Wind Cave in South Dakota, USA

Jewel and Wind Cave are two big barometric cave systems in SouthDakota, USA. The entrances of Jewel and Wind Cave are roughly 50 km apart, and until now it is unknown whether their entrances belong to two separate caves or to one muchlarger cave system. One possibility for testing these two competing hypotheses is to measure and analyse the climatic conditions in the vicinity of these entrances and within the caves in detail. In this context, the thermal conditions and air currents are crucial. These in turn can be characterised by the spatial and temporal patterns of the dynamics of air entering and leaving throughthe respective entrances; even thoughthese dynamics are coupled to atmospheric pressure fluctuations outside the caves, they differ for different cave systems and provide a “fingerprint” that has implications for the size and structure of individual cave systems. To give an example, Jewel and Wind Cave as the second and fourth-largest cave systems on earthshow some similarities, but many more noticeable differences regarding their climatological behaviour, despite their close proximity to eachother. The last big measurement campaigns on the climatic systems of the two barometric caves were carried out by Herb and Jan Conn in the 1960s, (Conn 1966). Despite their elementary work, the technical possibilities were very limited in those days. The self-constructed mechanical measurement equipment could only be used for basic measurements. Herb Conn was still able to identify the basic mechanism very clearly. He also carried out a number of different calculations on barometric air flow that remain important up to the present day. During the last 40 years, rapid electronic development has enabled us to use instruments that are far more precise and sensitive. The use of ultrasonic anemometers and dataloggers enables us to take more exact long term measurements. An extensive measurement programme was started in 2001 to fulfil several researchaims, and we are now in a position to decipher the different fingerpr

Natural Ventilation as a Factor Controlling the Dispersal of Airborne Toxins in Subway Systems in a Disaster Situation

In the event of a terrorist attack or an accidental release of hazardous substances in a subway system, an understanding of the dispersal of a toxic agent across the system with and without train movements is key information to aid rescue and escape procedures. This information is only available with knowledge of the airflow conditions inside the system. Apart from the train movements or active ventilation, the natural airflow regime determines which parts of the system will be contaminated. Tests with the tracer gas sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) and climatic studies have clearly confirmed the expected complex airflow system inside subway systems. The assumption that climatic and topographic factors of track routing as well as architectural characteristics have an influence on the air flow regime have been verified. The results show that in many instances designated escape routes are not safe. The emergency response could be improved and lives could be saved by implementing dynamic escape routing systems based on knowledge of the natural air flow