Affect during incremental exercise: The role of inhibitory cognition, autonomic cardiac function, and cerebral oxygenation

<div><p>Background</p><p>Pleasure is a key factor for physical activity behavior in sedentary individuals. Inhibitory cognitive control may play an important role in pleasure perception while exercising, especially at high intensities. In addition, separate work suggests that autonomic regulation and cerebral hemodynamics influence the affective and cognitive responses during exercise.</p><p>Purpose</p><p>We investigated the effects of exercise intensity on affect, inhibitory control, cardiac autonomic function, and prefrontal cortex (PFC) oxygenation.</p><p>Methods</p><p>Thirty-seven sedentary young adults performed two experimental conditions (exercise and control) in separate sessions in a repeated-measures design. In the exercise condition, participants performed a maximum graded exercise test on a cycle ergometer as we continuously measured oxygen consumption, heart rate variability (HRV), and PFC oxygenation. At each of 8 intensity levels we also measured inhibitory control (Stroop test), associative and dissociative thoughts (ADT), and affective/pleasure ratings. In the control condition, participants sat motionless on a cycle ergometer without active pedaling, and we collected the same measures at the same points in time as the exercise condition. We evaluated the main effects and interactions of exercise condition and intensity level for each measure using two-way repeated measures ANOVAs. Additionally, we evaluated the relationship between affect and inhibitory control, ADT, HRV, and PFC oxygenation using Pearson’s correlation coefficients.</p><p>Results</p><p>For exercise intensities below and at the ventilatory threshold (VT), participants reported feeling neutral, with preservation of inhibitory control, while intensities above the VT were associated with displeasure (<i>p</i><0.001), decreased inhibitory control and HRV (<i>p</i><0.001), and increased PFC oxygenation (<i>p</i><0.001). At the highest exercise intensity, pleasure was correlated with the low-frequency index of HRV (r = -0.34; p<0.05) and the low-frequency/high-frequency HRV ratio (r = -0.33; p<0.05). PFC deoxyhemoglobin was correlated with pleasure two stages above the VT (r = -0.37; p<0.05).</p><p>Conclusion</p><p>Our results support the notion that exercise at high intensities influences inhibitory control and one’s perception of pleasure, which are linked to changes in cardiac autonomic control and cerebral hemodynamics. These findings strengthen the existence of an integrated brain-heart-body system and highlight the importance of exercise intensity in exercise-related behavior in sedentary individuals.</p></div

Measures of the prefrontal cortex hemodynamics at rest and at different exercise intensities relative to baseline.

<p>Oxy-hemoglobin (O₂Hb; panel A), deoxyhemoglobin (HHb; panel B), and total hemoglobin (HbT; panel C). a = significant difference between conditions; b = significant difference from Rest. Δ—Delta percentage of variation; IT = incremental test.</p

Correlations between affective responses and oxygen uptake, inhibitory control, associative/dissociative thoughts, heart rate variability, and prefrontal cortex oxygenation during each stage of the incremental exercise (n = 37).

<p>Correlations between affective responses and oxygen uptake, inhibitory control, associative/dissociative thoughts, heart rate variability, and prefrontal cortex oxygenation during each stage of the incremental exercise (n = 37).</p

Comparison between maximum exercise intensity and rest on inhibitory control, physiological, and psychological responses in young sedentary adults (n = 37).

<p>Comparison between maximum exercise intensity and rest on inhibitory control, physiological, and psychological responses in young sedentary adults (n = 37).</p

Measures of inhibitory control and emotion perception at rest and at different exercise intensities.

<p>RT = reaction time (A) and the number of errors (B) of the Stroop test, associative/dissociative thoughts (C), and affective responses on the Feeling Scale (D) for the exercise and control conditions. a = significant difference between conditions; b = significant difference from Rest; IT = incremental test; VT = ventilatory threshold.</p

Drug abusers have impaired cerebral oxygenation and cognition during exercise

<div><p>Background</p><p>Individuals with Substance Use Disorder (SUD) have lower baseline metabolic activity of the prefrontal cortex (PFC) associated with impairment of cognitive functions in decision-making and inhibitory control. Aerobic exercise has shown to improve PFC function and cognitive performance, however, its effects on SUD individuals remain unclear.</p><p>Purpose</p><p>To verify the cognitive performance and oxygenation of the PFC during an incremental exercise in SUD individuals.</p><p>Methods</p><p>Fourteen individuals under SUD treatment performed a maximum graded exercise test on a cycle ergometer with continuous measurements of oxygen consumption, PFC oxygenation, and inhibitory control (Stroop test) every two minutes of exercise at different intensities. Fifteen non-SUD individuals performed the same protocol and were used as control group.</p><p>Results</p><p>Exercise increased oxyhemoglobin (O₂Hb) and total hemoglobin (tHb) by 9% and 7%, respectively. However, when compared to a non-SUD group, this increase was lower at high intensities (p<0.001), and the inhibitory cognitive control was lower at rest and during exercise (p<0.007). In addition, PFC hemodynamics during exercise was inversely correlated with inhibitory cognitive performance (reaction time) (r = -0.62, p = 0.001), and a lower craving perception for the specific abused substance (p = 0.0189) was reported immediately after exercise.</p><p>Conclusion</p><p>Despite SUD individuals having their PFC cerebral oxygenation increased during exercise, they presented lower cognition and oxygenation when compared to controls, especially at elevated intensities. These results may reinforce the role of exercise as an adjuvant treatment to improve PFC function and cognitive control in individuals with SUD.</p></div

Exercise induced results in correlations.

<p>Legend: <b>A</b>: oxyhemoglobin (O₂Hb) versus reaction time at RCP; <b>B</b>: total hemoglobin (tHb) versus reaction time at RCP; <b>C</b>: oxyhemoglobin (O₂Hb) versus reaction time at VO₂ peak; <b>D</b>: total hemoglobin (tHb) versus reaction time at VO₂ peak.</p

Characteristics of SUD and control groups.

<p>Characteristics of SUD and control groups.</p

Drug preferences of SUD group.

<p>Drug preferences of SUD group.</p