Changes in income poverty and deprivation over time : a comparison of eight European countries from the mid-eighties to the mid-nineties with special attention to the situation of the unemployed ; this paper was also published as working paper 3 of EPUSE (the employment precarity, unemployment and social exclusion project), Oxford, october 1998

All-over in Europe, unemployment became a growing problem from the mid 1980s to the mid 1990s. Nevertheless, the effects on the economical situation of the unemployed and the whole population are quite different in European countries. In this paper we first give a brief overview over the development of unemployment rates in eight member states of the European Union and over the different reactions to provide the social protection of the unemployed. Therefore we look at the social security expenditures, the level of income replacement for the unemployed and recent social policy reforms concerning them. In the second section of the paper, we examine the development of income distribution and poverty taking different poverty lines into consideration. There is no general pattern neither for the relationship of inequality among the unemployed to the whole economically active population nor for the development from the 80s to the 90s. But one can say that in countries with increasing income inequality also poverty is rising (especially in the UK) and that where inequality among the unemployed is less pronounced the proportions of the poor went down from the mid 80s to the mid 90s (France and Ireland). In nearly all countries the risk of being poor is ernormously high for the unemployed, Denmark is the only exception

EPR Studies on the Mono- and Dicobalt(II)-Substituted Forms of the Aminopeptidase from \u3cem\u3eAeromonas proteolytica\u3c/em\u3e. Insight into the Catalytic Mechanism of Dinuclear Hydrolases

The structure and function of the prototypical dinuclear hydrolase, namely, the aminopeptidase from Aeromonas proteolytica (AAP), was probed by EPR spectroscopy of the mono- and dicobalt(II)-substituted derivatives. A new systematic protocol for the interpretation of Co(II) EPR spectra is described and the S = 3/2 spin states of the Co(II)-substituted forms of the enzyme have been characterized. This protocol allows the simulation of line shape using theoretically allowed geff values corresponding to an isotropic greal value. In addition, the gross distortion of EPR spectra of high-spin S = 3/2 Co(II) ions has been investigated, and the effects of saturation on the line shapes and on simulation-derived spectral parameters are discussed. For [Co-(AAP)], a distinctive EPR signal was observed in which the hyperfine pattern due to 59Co was not centered on the low-field absorption feature, and the signal could not be simulated as a single species. Subtraction of EPR spectra recorded at different temperatures revealed that two species were, in fact, present in samples of [Co-(AAP)]. The first species was a relatively featureless axial signal with geff values of 5.75, 4.50, and 2.50. These values correspond to an Ms = |±1/2〉 ground-state transition with greal = 2.57 and E/D = 0.08. The second species had geff values of 6.83, 2.95, and 1.96 and exhibited a characteristic eight-line 59Co hyperfine pattern with Az = 7.2 mT. The observed 59Co hyperfine lines were simulated in both line width as well as signal intensity for the first time. These parameters correspond to the Ms = |±1/2〉 ground-state transition with greal = 2.57; however, the signal exhibited marked rhombicity (E/D = 0.28), consistent with a highly distorted tetrahedral Co(II) species. The possibility that the spectrum could be due to contributions from the Ms = |±1/2〉 and Ms = |±3/2〉 doublets of a single spin system was investigated, but subtraction of spectra recorded at various temperatures clearly indicated that the features at g = 2.95 and g = 1.96 were correlated with the feature at g = 6.83. In addition, at temperatures above 15 K, the signal intensity rapidly decreases and the signal is lost. The EPR spectrum of [CoCo(AAP)] reveals a relatively featureless signal that was simulated as a single species with geff(1,2,3) values of 5.10, 3.85, and 2.19; Ms = |±1/2〉; greal = 2.25; E/D = 0.095. The intensity of the observed signal for [CoCo(AAP)] corresponded to 0.13 spin/mol of Co(II). These data strongly suggest that the two Co(II) ions in the active site of AAP experience significant spin−spin interaction and are either antiferromagnetically or ferromagnetically coupled. Perpendicular mode EPR titration of apo-AAP with Co(II) revealed a low-field signal extending out of zero-field in samples with more than 1 equiv of Co(II) added. This type of EPR absorption is indicative of an integral spin system. Coincident with the appearance of the low-field perpendicular mode signal was the appearance of a parallel mode EPR signal with g ∼ 12. These data represent the first definitive evidence for ferromagnetic coupling between two high-spin S = 3/2 Co(II) ions in a dinuclear center. The effect of pH, added peroxide, and the coordination of the competitive inhibitor 1-butaneboronic acid (BuBA) on the signal both confirm the origin of the signal and provide important mechanistic information for this novel dicobalt(II) active site cluster. Based on the present study and the available literature data, a detailed mechanism of action is proposed for AAP

Spectroscopically Distinct Cobalt(II) Sites in Heterodimetallic Forms of the Aminopeptidase from \u3cem\u3eAeromonas proteolytica\u3c/em\u3e: Characterization of Substrate Binding

The Co(II)Zn(II)- and Zn(II)Co(II)-substituted derivatives of the aminopeptidase from Aeromonas proteolytica (AAP) were probed by EPR spectroscopy. EPR spectra of the high-spin S = 3/2 Co(II) ions in [CoZn(AAP)] and [ZnCo(AAP)] indicated that each metal binding site provides a spectroscopically distinct signature. For [CoZn(AAP)], subtraction of EPR spectra recorded at pH 7.5 and 10 revealed that two species were present and that the relative contributions to each of the experimental spectra were pH-dependent. The first EPR species, predominant at lower pH values, was simulated as a relatively featureless axial signal with geff values of 2.20, 3.92, and 5.23 which correspond to an Ms = |±1/2〉 ground state transition with a greal of 2.29 and an E/D of 0.1. The second species, predominant at high pH, was simulated with geff values of 1.80, 2.75, and 6.88 and exhibited a characteristic eight-line 59Co hyperfine pattern with an Az(59Co) of 7.0 mT. These parameters correspond to an Ms = |±1/2〉 ground state transition with a greal of 2.54; however, the signal exhibited marked rhombicity (E/D = 0.32) indicative of an asymmetric tetrahedral or five-coordinate Co(II) ion. Summation of these two species provided an excellent simulation of the observed [CoZn(AAP)] EPR spectrum. The EPR spectrum of [ZnCo(AAP)] also contained two species, at least one of which also exhibited 59Co hyperfine features. However, this signal exhibited little pH dependence, and individual species could not be isolated. The addition of the competitive inhibitor 1-butaneboronic acid (BuBA) to [CoZn(AAP)] resulted in a distinct change in the EPR spectrum; however, addition of BuBA to [ZnCo(AAP)] left the EPR spectrum completely unperturbed. These data indicate that BuBA binds only to the first metal binding site in AAP and does not interact with the second site. On the basis of the X-ray crystallographic data for the transition state analog-inhibited complexes of AAP and the aminopeptidase from bovine lens, BuBA was reclassified as a substrate analog inhibitor rather than a transition state analog inhibitor as previously suggested [Baker, J. O., & Prescott, J. M. (1983) Biochemistry 22, 5322−5331]. From difference spectroscopy and from the simulation of the [CoZn(AAP)] EPR spectrum, a third signal appearing upon BuBA binding was isolated. This signal was simulated with geff values of 2.08, 3.15, and 6.15 which correspond to an Ms = |±1/2〉 ground state transition with a greal of 2.41 and an E/D of 0.22. This simulation also invoked an eight-line unresolved 59Co hyperfine pattern with an Az(59Co) value of 4.0 mT. Summation of the these three species provided an excellent simulation of the observed [CoZn(AAP)] + BuBA EPR spectrum at both pH values. This work establishes that substrate binds only to the first metal binding site in AAP and thus substantiates the first step in catalysis in the recently proposed mechanism of action for AAP [Bennett, B., & Holz, R. C. (1997) J. Am. Chem. Soc. 119, 1923−1933; Chen, G., et al. (1997) Biochemistry 36, 4278−4286]

Equity in the Utilisation of Health Care in Ireland

This paper analyses the extent of equity of health service delivery across the income distribution in Ireland – that is the extent to which there is equal treatment for equal need irrespective of income. We find that almost all services, apart from dental and optician services, are used more by those at the lower end of the income distribution, but that this group also have the greatest need for health care. The comparison of health need to health care delivery across the income distribution without standardising for confounding factors suggests that those in higher income groups receive more health care for a given health status indicating inequity. However, need for health care is highest among the elderly and this group also tend to be at the bottom of the income distribution. Once we standardise for age, sex and location we find that hospital services are distributed equitably across the income distribution, whereas GP and prescription services tend to be pro-poor (used more by those with lower incomes for a given health status) and dental and optician services tend to be pro-rich (used more by those with higher incomes for a given health status).

Testing for asymmetry in Okun's law: A cross-country comparison

Most specifications of Okun's law assume a symmetric relationship between changes in unemployment and real output. We test this assumption for seven OECD countries (Australia, Canada, Germany, Japan, New Zealand, the United Kingdom and the United States). We find that failure to take account of asymmetries would see a rejection of the hypothesis that there exists a long-run relationship between unemployment and output in countries such as the United States and New Zealand. We also find that short-run output and unemployment adjustments to disequilibrium usually differ according to whether up-turns or down-turns in the business cycle are considered. These results could not have been obtained using standard estimates of Okun''s law based on a symmetric approach.