New Technologies for Standoff Assessment of Radiological Contamination

Technologies to rapidly quantify surface activity with minimal worker contact would dramatically decrease the radiation dose a radiation worker receives in assessment and cleanup operations, while obtaining a clear image of exactly where dispersed contamination is located. LLNL efforts in the development of the Photochromic Radiation Dosimeter and the Imaging Assessment System will be described. Initial use of these technologies in decontamination and decommissioning of contaminated facilities demonstrates several significant advantages over standard techniques such as survey meters and swipes

Ultra-high accuracy optical testing: creating diffraction-limitedshort-wavelength optical systems

Since 1993, research in the fabrication of extreme ultraviolet (EUV) optical imaging systems, conducted at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (LBNL) and Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL), has produced the highest resolution optical systems ever made. We have pioneered the development of ultra-high-accuracy optical testing and alignment methods, working at extreme ultraviolet wavelengths, and pushing wavefront-measuring interferometry into the 2-20-nm wavelength range (60-600 eV). These coherent measurement techniques, including lateral shearing interferometry and phase-shifting point-diffraction interferometry (PS/PDI) have achieved RMS wavefront measurement accuracies of 0.5-1-{angstrom} and better for primary aberration terms, enabling the creation of diffraction-limited EUV optics. The measurement accuracy is established using careful null-testing procedures, and has been verified repeatedly through high-resolution imaging. We believe these methods are broadly applicable to the advancement of short-wavelength optical systems including space telescopes, microscope objectives, projection lenses, synchrotron beamline optics, diffractive and holographic optics, and more. Measurements have been performed on a tunable undulator beamline at LBNL's Advanced Light Source (ALS), optimized for high coherent flux; although many of these techniques should be adaptable to alternative ultraviolet, EUV, and soft x-ray light sources. To date, we have measured nine prototype all-reflective EUV optical systems with NA values between 0.08 and 0.30 (f/6.25 to f/1.67). These projection-imaging lenses were created for the semiconductor industry's advanced research in EUV photolithography, a technology slated for introduction in 2009-13. This paper reviews the methods used and our program's accomplishments to date

The soft x-ray instrument for materials studies at the linac coherent light source x-ray free-electron laser

This content may be downloaded for personal use only. Any other use requires prior permission of the author and AIP Publishing. This material originally appeared in Review of Scientific Instruments 83, 043107 (2012) and may be found at https://doi.org/10.1063/1.3698294.The soft x-ray materials science instrument is the second operational beamline at the linac coherent light source x-ray free electron laser. The instrument operates with a photon energy range of 480–2000 eV and features a grating monochromator as well as bendable refocusing mirrors. A broad range of experimental stations may be installed to study diverse scientific topics such as: ultrafast chemistry, surface science, highly correlated electron systems, matter under extreme conditions, and laboratory astrophysics. Preliminary commissioning results are presented including the first soft x-ray single-shot energy spectrum from a free electron laser

Optical constants of materials in the EUV/soft x-ray region for multilayer mirror applications

The response of a given material to an incident electromagnetic wave is described by the energy dependent complex index of refraction n = 1 {minus} {delta} + i{beta}. In the extreme ultraviolet (EUV)/soft x-ray spectral region, the need for accurate determination of n is driven by activity in areas such as synchrotron based research, EUV/x-ray lithography, x-ray astronomy and plasma applications. Knowledge of the refractive index is essential for the design of the optical components of instruments used in experiments and applications. Moreover, measured values of n may be used to evaluate solid state models for the optical behavior of materials. The refractive index n of Si, Mo and Be is investigated in the EUV/soft x-ray region. In the case of Si, angle dependent reflectance measurements are performed in the energy range 50--180 eV. The optical constants {delta}, {beta} are both determined by fitting to the Fresnel equations. The results of this method are compared to the values in the 1993 atomic tables. Photoabsorption measurements for the optical constants of Mo are performed on C/Mo/C foils, in the energy range 60--930 eV. Photoabsorption measurements on Be thin films supported on silicon nitride membranes are performed, and the results are applied in the determination of the absorption coefficient of Be in the energy region 111.5--250 eV. The new results for Si and Mo are applied to the calculation of normal incidence reflectivities of Mo/Si and Mo/Be multilayer mirrors. These calculations show the importance of accurate knowledge of {delta} and {beta} in the prediction and modeling of the performance of multilayer optics

Reflectance measurements on clean surfaces for determination of optical constants of silicon in the extreme ultraviolet-soft-X-ray region

The refractive index n ϭ 1 Ϫ ␦ ϩ i␤ of Si in the energy range 50 -180 eV is investigated with angledependent reflectance measurements. The optical constants ␦ and ␤ are both determined by fitting to the Fresnel equations. The results of this method are compared with the values in the atomic tables derived from experimental data for ␤ and implementation of the Kramers-Kronig relations for ␦. The samples were prepared by UV irradiation and HF:ethanol dipping to H passivate the surface. It is found that the values of ␦ in the atomic tables are 8 -15% too high in the region 50 -90 eV. This is attributed to missing oscillator strength in the tabulated absorption coefficient for Si. The measured values of ␤ for crystalline Si exhibit structure below the L 2,3 edge ͑99.8 eV͒, as was previously observed in transmission measurements of Si͑111͒. It is also found that the method of least-squares fitting reflectance data to obtain optical constants is most effective for energies well below the edge, where ␦ Ͼ ␤, while for a range of energies around and above the edge, where ␦ Ͻ ␤, the optical constants are determined with large uncertainties. This behavior is not unique to the Si L 2,3 edge

New method for the determination of photoabsorption from transmittance measurements in the extreme ultraviolet

International audienceWe have developed a new method for the determination of photoabsorption at extreme ultraviolet wavelengths longer than 20 nm, where reliable refractive index values are sparse or non-existent. Our method overcomes the obstacle of multiple reflections that occur inside thin films in this spectral range, which up until now has prevented the accurate determination of photoabsorption from transmittance measurements. We have derived a mathematical expression that is independent of internal reflection amplitudes, while taking advantage of the transmittance oscillations stemming from such reflections. The method is validated on measurements of aluminum thin films. This advance will enable accurate refractive index values for many important materials for optical instrumentation, thus facilitating high-priority research on topics including coherent light sources, planetary and solar physics, and semiconductor manufacturing