Self-Reported and FEMA Flood Exposure Assessment after Hurricane Sandy: Association with Mental Health Outcomes

<div><p>Hurricane Sandy caused extensive physical and economic damage; the long-term mental health consequences are unknown. Flooding is a central component of hurricane exposure, influencing mental health through multiple pathways that unfold over months after flooding recedes. Here we assess the concordance in self-reported and Federal Emergency Management (FEMA) flood exposure after Hurricane Sandy and determine the associations between flooding and anxiety, depression, and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Self-reported flood data and mental health symptoms were obtained through validated questionnaires from New York City and Long Island residents (N = 1231) following Sandy. Self-reported flood data was compared to FEMA data obtained from the FEMA Modeling Task Force Hurricane Sandy Impact Analysis. Multivariable logistic regressions were performed to determine the relationship between flooding exposure and mental health outcomes. There were significant discrepancies between self-reported and FEMA flood exposure data. Self-reported dichotomous flooding was positively associated with anxiety (OR_adj: 1.5 [95% CI: 1.1–1.9]), depression (OR_adj: 1.7 [1.3–2.2]), and PTSD (OR_adj: 2.5 [1.8–3.4]), while self-reported continuous flooding was associated with depression (OR_adj: 1.1 [1.01–1.12]) and PTSD (OR_adj: 1.2 [1.1–1.2]). Models with FEMA dichotomous flooding (OR_adj: 2.1 [1.5–2.8]) or FEMA continuous flooding (OR_adj: 1.1 [1.1–1.2]) were only significantly associated with PTSD. Associations between mental health and flooding vary according to type of flood exposure measure utilized. Future hurricane preparedness and recovery efforts must integrate micro and macro-level flood exposures in order to accurately determine flood exposure risk during storms and realize the long-term importance of flooding on these three mental health symptoms.</p></div

Geographic distribution of concordance (green) and discordance (purple) in flooding (yes/no) between self-reported and FEMA flooding measures in NYC and LI.

<p>Data were classified by living in apartments (triangles) and not (circles) and were overlaid on the FEMA MOTF flood height layer.</p

Associations between flood exposure measurements [self-reported / FEMA-reported, dichotomous (flooding yes/no) / continuous (feet)] and mental health (anxiety, depression, PTSD).

<p>The model was adjusted for age, gender, race, education, existing mental health status, elapsed time since Hurricane Sandy, and living in an apartment.</p

Correlation between FEMA (y) and self-reported (x) flood heights according to living in an apartment (triangles) or not (circles).

<p>Correlation between FEMA (y) and self-reported (x) flood heights according to living in an apartment (triangles) or not (circles).</p

Description of the study population.

<p>Description of the study population.</p

Self-reported and FEMA-reported flood heights and presence of mental health symptoms.

<p>* p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01. Wilcoxon rank sum tests were used to compare flood heights and the absence/presence of mental health symptoms within self-reported and FEMA-reported flood exposures.</p