Nitrate Removal from Ground Water: A Review

Nitrate contamination of ground water resources has increased in Asia, Europe, United States, and various other parts of the world. This trend has raised concern as nitrates cause methemoglobinemia and cancer. Several treatment processes can remove nitrates from water with varying degrees of efficiency, cost, and ease of operation. Available technical data, experience, and economics indicate that biological denitrification is more acceptable for nitrate removal than reverse osmosis and ion exchange. This paper reviews the developments in the field of nitrate removal processes which can be effectively used for denitrifying ground water as well as industrial water

Figure showing the pCRM in <i>Drosophila melanogaster</i> and <i>Tribolium castaneum</i> for different transcription factors in <i>Odd-skipped</i>, <i>Fushi-tarazu</i>, and <i>Paired</i> genes.

5.1 shows the predicted transcription factor binding site clusters in Odd-skipped for D. melanogaster and T. castaneum, A) Locations of the gene, TSS and the TFBS cluster as predicted by the MCAST software for the Odd-skipped gene in D. melanogaster, B) Binding sites for different transcription factors on the predicted TFBS cluster in the gene Odd-skipped for D. melanogaster, C) Locations of the gene, TSS and the TFBS cluster as predicted by the MCAST software for the Odd-skipped gene in T. castaneum, D) Binding sites for different transcription factors on the predicted TFBS cluster in the gene Odd-skipped for T. castaneum. 5.2 shows the predicted transcription factor binding site clusters in Fushi-Tarazu for D. melanogaster and T. castaneum. A) Locations of the gene, TSS and the TFBS cluster as predicted by the MCAST software for the Fushi-Tarazu gene in D. melanogaster, B) Binding sites for different transcription factors on the predicted TFBS cluster in the gene Fushi-Tarazu for D. melanogaster, C) Locations of the gene, TSS and the TFBS cluster as predicted by the MCAST software for the Fushi-Tarazu gene in T. castaneum, D) Binding sites for different transcription factors on the predicted TFBS cluster in the gene Fushi-Tarazu for T. castaneum. 5.3 shows the predicted transcription factor binding site clusters in Paired for D. melanogaster and T. castaneum. A) Locations of the gene, TSS and the TFBS cluster as predicted by the MCAST software for the Paired gene in D. melanogaster, B) Binding sites for different transcription factors on the predicted TFBS cluster in the gene Paired for D. melanogaster, C) Locations of the gene, TSS and the TFBS cluster as predicted by the MCAST software for the Paired gene in T. castaneum, D) Binding sites for different transcription factors on the predicted TFBS cluster in the gene Paired for T. castaneum.</p

List of genes used for enhancer localization along with their chromosomal locations, accession numbers, gene locations, and gene sequence location with the flanking regions in <i>Tribolium castaneum</i>.

List of genes used for enhancer localization along with their chromosomal locations, accession numbers, gene locations, and gene sequence location with the flanking regions in Tribolium castaneum.</p

Number of Transcription Factor binding sites on different A-P patterning genes in <i>Drosophila melanogaster</i> and <i>Tribolium castaneum</i> as predicted by the MCAST software.

Here, Drosophila melanogaster and Tribolium castaneum are abbreviated as Dm and Tc respectively.</p

Figure showing the pCRM for <i>Drosophila melanogaster</i> and <i>Tribolium castaneum</i> for different transcription factors in <i>Even-skipped</i>, <i>Hairy</i>, and <i>Runt</i>.

4.1 shows the predicted transcription factor binding site clusters in Even-skipped for D. melanogaster and T. castaneum, A) Locations of the gene, TSS and the TFBS cluster as predicted by the MCAST software for the Even-skipped gene in D. melanogaster, B) Binding sites for different transcription factors on the predicted TFBS cluster in the gene Even-skipped for D. melanogaster, C) Locations of the gene, TSS and the TFBS cluster as predicted by the MCAST software for the Even-skipped gene in T. castaneum, D) Binding sites for different transcription factors on the predicted TFBS cluster in the gene Even-skipped for T. castaneum. 4.2 shows the predicted transcription factor binding site clusters in Hairy for D. melanogaster and T. castaneum. A) Locations of the gene, TSS and the TFBS cluster as predicted by the MCAST software for the Hairy gene in D. melanogaster, B) Binding sites for different transcription factors on the predicted TFBS cluster in the gene Hairy for D. melanogaster, C) Locations of the gene, TSS and the TFBS cluster as predicted by the MCAST software for the Hairy gene in T. castaneum, D) Binding sites for different transcription factors on the predicted TFBS cluster in the gene Hairy for T. castaneum. 4.3 shows the predicted transcription factor binding site clusters in Runt for D. melanogaster and T. castaneum. A) Locations of the gene, TSS and the TFBS cluster as predicted by the MCAST software for the Runt gene in D. melanogaster, B) Binding sites for different transcription factors on the predicted TFBS cluster in the gene Runt for D. melanogaster, C) Locations of the gene, TSS and the TFBS cluster as predicted by the MCAST software for the Runt gene in T. castaneum, D) Binding sites for different transcription factors on the predicted TFBS cluster in the gene Runt for T. castaneum.</p

Location of the transcription start sites and putative cis-regulatory modules and predicted CRM’s size as predicted by the MCAST software on the A-P patterning genes of <i>Tribolium castaneum</i>.

Location of the transcription start sites and putative cis-regulatory modules and predicted CRM’s size as predicted by the MCAST software on the A-P patterning genes of Tribolium castaneum.</p

Location of the transcription start sites and putative cis-regulatory modules and CRM’s size as predicted by the MCAST software on the A-P patterning genes of <i>Drosophila melanogaster</i>.

Here–and + represents the upstream and downstream location of predicted CRM respectively.</p

Figure showing the pCRM details of <i>Drosophila melanogaster</i> and <i>Tribolium castaneum</i> for different transcription factors in <i>Kruppel</i>, <i>Giant</i>, and <i>tailless</i>.

3.1 shows the predicted transcription factor binding site clusters in Kruppel for D. melanogaster and T. castaneum. A) Locations of the gene, TSS and the TFBS cluster as predicted by the MCAST software for the Kruppel gene in D. melanogaster, B) Binding sites for different transcription factors on the predicted TFBS cluster in the gene Kruppel for D. melanogaster, C) Locations of the gene, TSS and the TFBS cluster as predicted by the MCAST software for the Kruppel gene in T. castaneum, D) Binding sites for different transcription factors on the predicted TFBS cluster in the gene Kruppel for T. castaneum, 3.2 shows the predicted transcription factor binding site clusters in Giant for D. melanogaster and T. castaneum. A) Locations of the gene, TSS and the TFBS cluster as predicted by the MCAST software for the Giant gene in D. melanogaster, B) Binding sites for different transcription factors on the predicted TFBS cluster in the gene Giant for D. melanogaster, C) Locations of the gene, TSS and the TFBS cluster as predicted by the MCAST software for the Giant gene in T. castaneum, D) Binding sites for different transcription factors on the predicted TFBS cluster in the gene Giant for T. castaneum 3.3 shows the predicted transcription factor binding site clusters in Tailless for D. melanogaster and T. castaneum. A) Locations of the gene, TSS and the TFBS cluster as predicted by the MCAST software for the Tailless gene in D. melanogaster, B) Binding sites for different transcription factors on the predicted TFBS cluster in the gene Tailless for D. melanogaster, C) Locations of the gene, TSS and the TFBS cluster as predicted by the MCAST software for the Tailless gene in T. castaneum, D) Binding sites for different transcription factors on the predicted TFBS cluster in the gene Tailless for T. castaneum.</p

Protein-protein interactions between the different TFs which bind to the enhancers in the A-P patterning genes of <i>T</i>. <i>castaneum</i>.

Here in this figure, the pink colour represents the experimentally determined interactions, Sky blue shows the interactions curated from databases between the proteins. The blue colour node represents the gene co-occurrence. The black colour node depicts the co-expression of protein and the violet colour represents the protein homology. The yellow colour node represents the interactions that are predicted through text mining.</p