Tropical Forests Are An Ideal Habitat for Wide Array of Wildlife Species

Tropical forests are one of the most diverse (1 ha may contain more than 1000 plant species) and highly productive ecosystems on the earth. They cover 15.0% of the earth’s surface and harbored 80% terrestrial biodiversity. Tropical forests are home to thousands of endemic, rare, endangered, and threatened wildlife species, which play a significant role in ecosystem functions, such as pest control, pollinators, and seed dispersal. Wildlife species are bioindicators of the tropical forest ecosystems, that is, their presence or absence may provide the information about the habitat dynamics, such as vegetation structure, food resources, productivity, and anthropogenic disturbances. Despite being rich in wildlife resources, tropical forests have been extensively lost and degraded by human intervention, and their destruction is still continuous in a variety of ways. The current information on the tropical forests as an ideal habitat for a wide array of wildlife species is inadequate. It is highly essential to examine with solid grasp the suitability of the tropical forest as attractive habitat for diversity of wildlife species to understand their functional role fragile forest ecosystem and to formulate the better conservation and management strategies in future

Avifauna Composition and its habitat in the Paya Indah Freshwater Wetland Ecosystem, Malaysia

Birds are the most conspicuous and significant components of freshwater wetland ecosystem and their presence or absence may indicate the ecological conditions of the wetland area. The objectives of this study were to determine species composition, diversity, density, feeding guilds and correlation of birds with microclimate and microhabitat conditions. The study was conducted using distance sampling point count and mist-netting methods at Paya Indah Wetland Reserve, Peninsular Malaysia. A total of 122 bird species and 42 families (including 12 opportunistic observations) were recorded during 15 consecutive months of the study period, from November 2007 to January 2009. The point count method detected 100 species of birds (25 waterbird species and 75 terrestrial bird species) belonging to 38 families. Meanwhile, the mist-netting method captured 65 bird species (18 waterbird species and 47 terrestrial bird iv\ud species) belonging to 33 families. The bird density of the wetland reserve was 83.92 ± 4.53 birds/ha which ranged from 75.40 – 93.41 birds/ha (95% confidence interval). The density of the terrestrial birds was higher (70.26 ± 4.48 birds/ha) than the waterbirds (13.09 ± 1.78 birds/ha). Furthermore, the resident birds showed the highest bird density (72.17 ± 3.77 birds/ha) compared to the resident and migratory birds (8.86 ± 0.86 birds/ha), migratory birds (3.77 ± 0.50 birds/ha) and vagrant birds (0.13 ± 0.08 birds/ha). In addition, the highest density was recorded in Marsh Swamp (136.55 ± 21.21 birds/ha) as compared to Lotus Swamp (95.42 ± 6.96 birds/ha), Shrub Patches (86.47 ±8.36 birds/ha), Dryland (75.22 ± 7.09 birds/ha) and Open Water Body (70.40 ± 11.14 birds/ha). White-throated Kingfisher (Halcyon smyrensis; 66 captures; 32.84%) for waterbirds and Yellow-vented Bulbul (Pycnonotus goiavier; 379 captures; 29.68%) for terrestrial birds were the most abundant species based on mist-netting captured. In addition, eight waterbird species (0.49% each) and nine terrestrial bird species were the rarest species (0.08% each). The Pycnonotidae was the most dominant family (385 individuals; 26.05%) whereas the Phasianidae, Coraciidae and Muscicapidae were the rarest families with only one individual captured each (0.07%) based on mist-netting. Meanwhile, the point count results showed that Carnivore/Piscivore/Insectivore was the most dominant guilds (1.48 ± 0.13 birds/ha) and Insectivore was the rarest guild (0.42 ± 0.27 birds/ha) for waterbirds. In addition, the Granivore was most abundant guild (2.81 ± 0.38 birds/ha) while the Carnivore was the rarest guild (0.46 ± 0.22 birds/ha) for terrestrial birds. Furthermore, the mist-netting method indicated that Carnivore/Piscivore/Insectivore was the most dominant guilds (81.89%), while Omnivore was the rarest guild (18.41%) for waterbirds. The Frugivore/Insectivore was the most abundant guild (38.06%) and the Carnivore was the rarest guild (0.55%) for terrestrial birds. Both the point count and the mist-netting methods showed that terrestrial birds have higher species diversities, i.e. Shannon‟s index (point count; N1 = 20.83 and mist-netting; N1 = 14.97), species richness, i.e. Margalef‟s index (point count; R1 = 7.97 and mist-netting; R1 = 6.43) and species evenness, i.e. McIntosh‟s index (point count; E = 0.73 and mist-netting; E = 0.66) as compared to waterbirds, i.e. Shannon‟s index (point count; N1 = 9.56 and mist-netting; N1 = 7.23) and species richness, i.e. Margalef‟s index (point count; R1 = 2.99 and mist-netting; R1 = 3.21) and species evenness, i.e. McIntosh‟s index (point count; E = 0.62 and mist-netting; E = 0.60). Moreover, the point count method indicated that Marsh Swamp had a higher species diversity (Shannon index; N1 = 27.16), species richness (Margalef‟s index; R1 = 9.52) and species evenness (Pielou‟s J Evenness; E = 0.71) as compared to Lotus Swamp, Open Water Body, Dryland and Shrub Patches. The Canonical Correspondence Analysis revealed that the microhabitat characteristics such as vegetation composition (i.e. emergent and submerged vegetations, grasses, shrubs and trees), vegetation structures (tree diameter and height), vegetation layers (ground vegetation, shrubs and tree layers), microclimate variables (temperature, relative humidity and light intensity) and water level were the key factors that influenced the distribution, diversity and density of the wetland avian species. This study also revealed that the wetland bird species have adapted a fairly unique set of microhabitat and microclimate conditions. Therefore, this study showed that the distance sampling point count method was more efficient and produced better results than the mist-netting method particularly in terms of species composition, diversity and feeding guilds. Moreover, mist-netting should be applied as a supplement method to the point count in obtaining accurate estimates because mist-netting is more effective to record small, highly cryptic and shy bird species with secretive behaviour. The results also indicated that marsh swamp and open water body have “Class II A” water quality, while lotus swamp has “Class III” water quality. The results of this study clearly indicated that Paya Indah Wetland Reserve is a highly important area in providing diverse food resources, shelter, nesting and roosting sites for a wide range of bird species, particularly for the waterbird and terrestrial species. Therefore, the wetland area should be protected and declared as another Ramsar site for the country

Bird species composition and feeding guilds based on point count and mist netting methods at the Paya Indah Wetland Reserve, Peninsular Malaysia

A comparison study was conducted to determine the bird species composition, relative abundance, species diversity and feeding guilds based on point count and mist netting at the Paya Indah Wetland Reserve, Peninsular Malaysia. A total of 13872 bird observations belonging to 100 species and 38 families were recorded using the point count method over 15 consecutive months, and a total of 1478 bird individuals belong to 65 species and 33 families were captured using the mist netting method over 1260 netting hours. The results showed that Treron vernans (1723 observations; 12.42%) was the most abundant bird species using the point count method, whereas Pycnonotus goiavier (378 individuals; 25.64%) was the most abundant bird species using the mist netting method. The Ardeidae (9 species; 23.68%) was the most dominant family using the point count method, but the Rallidae (6 species; 18.18%) was the most dominant family using the mist netting method. The point count method produced higher species diversity (Shannon’s N1 = 31.22) and richness (Margalef’s R1 = 10.42) than mist netting, whereas the mist netting method produced higher species evenness (McIntosh’s E = 0.86) than the point count method. Insectivores, comprised of arboreal foliage and bark gleaners and sallying and terrestrial foragers, were found to be the most dominant feeding guild using both methods (point count = 35% and mist netting = 40%). In contrast, Carnivore/Insectivore was the rarest feeding guild found using the point count method (2%), and Carnivore and Nectarivore/Insectivore were the rarest feeding guilds found using the mist netting method (3.08%). These findings indicate that the point count method is more efficient and produces better results than the mist netting method

Density and diversity of water birds and terrestrial birds at Paya Indah Wetland Reserve, Selangor Peninsular Malaysia

The main objectives of this study was to determine and compare the density and diversity of water birds and terrestrial birds using distance sampling point count method at Paya Indah Wetland Reserve, Selangor Peninsular Malaysia. A total of 13872 bird individuals from 100 bird species were recorded in the wetland reserve. Out of the total, 25 (22.26% of all detections) and 75 (77.74% of all detections) bird species belong to water birds and terrestrial birds respectively. The results showed that total bird density of the wetland reserve is 83.92±4.53 birds ha-1 and ranged from 75.40-93.41 birds ha-1 (95% confidence interval). The terrestrial birds have higher density (70.26±4.48 birds ha-1) as compared to water birds (13.09±1.78 birds ha-1). The highest water bird density was recorded for Purple Swamphen (5.05±0.89 birds ha-1) and the lowest was Ballion's Crake (0.31±0.13 birds ha-1). The highest terrestrial bird density was recorded for Yellow-vented Bulbul (12.97±1.05 birds ha-1) and the lowest was Ashy Minivet (0.31±0.18 birds ha-1). The highest species diversity i.e. Shannon’s index (N1 = 20.83), species richness i.e. Margalef’s index (R1 = 7.97) and species evenness, i.e., McIntosh’s index (E = 0.73) was recorded in terrestrial birds. This study indicated that Paya Indah Wetland Reserve is a highly important habitat and provides diverse food, shelter, nesting and roosting sites for water birds as well as terrestrial birds

Effects of water level fluctuation on waterbirds distribution and aquatic vegetation composition at Natural Wetland Reserve, Peninsular Malaysia.

The effects of water level fluctuations on waterbirds distribution and aquatic vegetation composition was determined using distance sampling point count method and direct visual observation at Paya Indah Natural Wetland Reserve, Peninsular Malaysia. A total of 2563 waterbird individual of 28 species and 8 families were detected in three habitats, that is, marsh swamp (68.59%), open water body (18.42%), and lotus swamp (12.99%). Porphyrio porphyrio was the most dominant species in marsh swamp (45.39%), and lotus swamp (23.42%), whereas Dendrocygna javanica (42.16%) was the most abundant in open water body. The highest water level for marsh swamp (2.313 m) and lotus swamp (2.249 m) was recorded in January, 2008 and for open water body (2.572 m) in January and April, 2008. In contrast, the lowest water level for marsh swamp (2.048 m) and lotus swamp (1.834 m) was determined in October, 2008 and for open water body (2.398 m) in January, 2009. Pearson test indicates weak linear correlationship between water level and waterbird abundance in lotus swamp habitat

Avian density in different habitat typs at Paya Indah Natural Wetland Reserve, Peninsular Malaysia.

Population monitoring is an essential tool to detect changes in avian community structure for their effective management and conservation. Present study determined bird diversity and density in five habitat types i.e., marsh swamp, lotus swamp, open water body, dryland and shrub patches using distance sampling point count method at Paya Indah Natural Wetland Reserve, Peninsular Malaysia from November, 2007 to January, 2009. Overall avian density at the reserve was 83.92 ± 4.53 birds/ha which might range from 75.40 – 93.41 birds/ha at 95% confidence interval. Highest bird density was recorded in November, 2007 (11.83 ± 1.92 birds/ha), and the lowest in April, 2008 (3.01 ± 0.45 birds/ha). Marsh Swamp habitat supported the highest avian density (i.e. 136.55 ± 21.21 birds/ha) and open water body lowest one i.e., 70.40 ± 11.14 birds/ha. Yellow-vented Bulbul – Pycnonotus goiavier was the most abundant bird species of Marsh Swamp (11.81 ± 1.30 birds/ha), and Dryland (13.93 ± 1.42 birds/ha), Jungle Myna – Acridotheres tristis (8.43 ± 2.07 birds/ha) for Open Water Body while Scaly-breasted Munia – Lonchura punctulata (31.52 ± 4.75 birds/ha) and Pinknecked Green Pigeon – Treron vernans (19.99 ± 4.52 birds/ha) was the most dominant species of Lotus Swamp and Shrub Patches, respectively. However, 26 bird species (each) of Marsh Swamp and Lotus Swamp, 20 species of Open Water Body, 28 species (each) of Dryland and Shrub Patches were not analyzed due to the small sample size (< 5 detections). Kruskal–Wallis One–Way Nonparametric ANOVA and Tukey’s (HSD) test results showed that bird density of marsh swamp habitat is significantly different from shrub patches, open water body and lotus swamp habitat (F4, 285 = 6.31, P < 0.05). This study highlighted that Paya Indah Natural Wetland Reserve encompasses heterogeneous vegetation that provides diversity food resources, suitable loafing, safe foraging and breeding sites for wide array of avian species

The effects of climate change on avian diversity in high altitude wetland habitats

Birds are a major component of wetland ecosystems and often exhibit a distinct correlationship with wetland vegetation and food resources. Conversely, long-term effects of the climate change on avian community parameters and their habitats have not been examined in high-altitude wetland habitats. However these wetlands are highly important for a variety of avian species, i.e., they utilize the high-altitude wetland habitats permanently or in transit (i.e., stopover) during migration from September to March. Climate change is a major driving factor that affects avian diversity through various ways such as altered microclimate factors (temperature, relative humidity, and rainfall pattern) and microhabitat characteristics that had caused a shift in home range, food resources, and breeding ecology of various bird species inhabiting high-altitude wetland habitats. The current chapter indicates that climate change affects phenology, distribution, migration season (i.e., arrival and departure), and breeding ecology of avian species. In fact, very little is known about the effects of the climate change on the avian diversity in high-altitude wetland habitats. Hence, it is crucially important to determine the effects of climate change on avian diversity in high-altitude wetland habitats within the context of ecological and spatial parameters to understand the effects of climate change on avian diversity and their habitat for future wetland habitat conservation and management

Edge effects on foraging guilds of upperstory birds in an isolated tropical rainforest of Malaysia

The forest edge is the boundary between the forest area and the surrounding landscape. In this study forest edge is surrounded landscape which encompass of housing societies, highway, sports complex and equestrian park. Edge may directly or indirectly affect bird species in forest habitats because of various microclimate conditions (i.e., sunlight, wind, temperature, relative humidity) and microhabitat factors (i.e., vegetation species composition, structure and food resources). However, little information is available on the effects of edge on tropical forest birds. This study was conducted in an isolated tropical rainforest from March 2010 to June 2011 using a distance sampling point count technique to examine edge effects on the foraging guilds of upperstory bird species. In total, 1,618 individuals representing 61 upperstory bird species were detected. The analysis of feeding guilds indicated that sallying insectivores (F6 = 22.95, P < 0.001), arboreal foliage-gleaning frugivores (F6 = 3.87, P < 0.001) and arboreal foliage-gleaning insectivore/frugivores (F6 = 4.42, P < 0.001) showed a significant difference in habitat selection at different distances from the edge to the interior of the forest. This finding shows that changes in the micro-environment have a significant effect on the distribution and richness of upperstory birds. This study demonstrated that the large-sized upperstory bird species, such as barbets, broadbills and malkohas tend to forage at the forest interior and infrequently observed at the forest edge. The study also showed that the upperstory bird species were influenced by the forest edge due to factors related to microclimate. However, the response of upperstory bird species may vary from species to species and from the forest edge to the interior. The birds selected specific microhabitat and microclimate characteristics that offered optimal food, shelter and breeding sites

Species Diversity and Feeding Guilds of Birds in Paya Indah Wetland Reserve, Peninsular Malaysia

The objective of this study was to examine the bird species diversity and feeding guilds in Paya Indah Wetland Reserve, Peninsular, Malaysia. Distance sampling-point count method was used to survey the bird species. A total of 13872 birds belonging to 100 species and 38 families were recorded. The results show that Treron vernans (12.42%), Pycnonotus goiavier (12.13%), Geopelia striata (7.58%), Porphyrio porphyrio (6.87%) and Streptopelia chinensis (6.33%) were the most dominant species in the area. The Ardeidae was the most dominant family with nine species and sixteen families were rarest only with one species each. The highest bird diversity was observed in Marsh swamp (Shannon’s N1 = 27.16), while the lowest was in Patchy shrubland (Shannon’s N1 = 22.51). The highest bird species richness was observed in Marsh swamp (Margalef’s R1 = 9.52), while the lowest was observed in open water bodies (Margalef’s R1 = 7.35). The evenness of individuals among the species was higher in Marsh swamps (Pielou J = 0.71) and lower in Patchy shrubland (Pielou J = 0.67). Analysis of variance and Tukey (HSD) tests showed that bird species among habitats is significantly different (F4, 495 = 8.82 p<0.0001). Feeding guilds indicated that insectivore was the most dominant group (37%), while Carnivore/Insectivore and Granivore were the least dominant groups (3% each) in all five habitats. This study clearly indicated that Paya Indah Wetland Reserve is highly important in providing food resources, shelter, nesting and roosting sites for wide range of bird species

Edge effects on foraging guilds of upperstory birds in an isolated tropical rainforest of Malaysia

The forest edge is the boundary between the forest area and the surrounding landscape. In this study forest edge is surrounded landscape which encompass of housing societies, highway, sports complex and equestrian park. Edge may directly or indirectly affect bird species in forest habitats because of various microclimate conditions (i.e., sunlight, wind, temperature, relative humidity) and microhabitat factors (i.e., vegetation species composition, structure and food resources). However, little information is available on the effects of edge on tropical forest birds. This study was conducted in an isolated tropical rainforest from March 2010 to June 2011 using a distance sampling point count technique to examine edge effects on the foraging guilds of upperstory bird species. In total, 1,618 individuals representing 61 upperstory bird species were detected. The analysis of feeding guilds indicated that sallying insectivores (F6 = 22.95, P < 0.001), arboreal foliage-gleaning frugivores (F6 = 3.87, P < 0.001) and arboreal foliage-gleaning insectivore/frugivores (F6 = 4.42, P < 0.001) showed a significant difference in habitat selection at different distances from the edge to the interior of the forest. This finding shows that changes in the micro-environment have a significant effect on the distribution and richness of upperstory birds. This study demonstrated that the large-sized upperstory bird species, such as barbets, broadbills and malkohas tend to forage at the forest interior and infrequently observed at the forest edge. The study also showed that the upperstory bird species were influenced by the forest edge due to factors related to microclimate. However, the response of upperstory bird species may vary from species to species and from the forest edge to the interior. The birds selected specific microhabitat and microclimate characteristics that offered optimal food, shelter and breeding sites