История британской кавалерии в девятнадцатом веке с точки зрения Энтони Доусон

Rafał Igielski dokonał recenzji publikacji: Anthony Dawson, Real War Horses. The Experiences of the British Cavalry 1814–1914, Barnsley 2016

Меандры службы генерала от кавалерии Алексея Брусилова в Красной Армии в 1920–1926 гг.

Tematem artykułu jest ostatni okres aktywnej działalności generała Aleksieja Brusiłowa na polu wojskowym – losy podczas wojny domowej, jak i służby czynnej w Armii Czerwonej. Stosunkowo najwięcej miejsca poświęcono latom 1923–1924, gdy bohater niniejszego tekstu sprawował funkcję Generalnego Inspektora Kawalerii w wojskach sowieckich, przyczyniając się do zwiększenia profesjonalizmu tej broni. Ze względu na brak jakichkolwiek opracowań w języku polskim na temat tej persony, autor uznał za konieczne przedstawienie też zarysu żołnierskiej kariery gen. Brusiłowa w armii Imperium Rosyjskiego do roku 1914, co nadało pracy bardziej całościowego charakteru i umożliwiło poddanie krytycznej ocenie umiejętności dowódczo-organizacyjnych wodza spod Łucka. Pokrótce omówiono też ewolucję wizerunku gen. Brusiłowa w historiografii i propagandzie ZSRS oraz Rosji.The subject of the article is the last period of General Aleksei Brusilov’s military activity – during the civil war as well as active service in the Red Army. Focus has been placed mainly on the years 1923–1924, when he served in the Soviet forces as General Inspector of the Cavalry, contributing to its increasing professionalization. Due to the lack of any studies on Brusilov in Polish, the author considered it necessary to present an outline of the general’s military career in the army of the Russian Empire until 1914, which gave the paper a more comprehensive character and made it possible to critically assess his command and organizational skills. A brief discussion of the evolution of General Brusilov’s image in historiography and USSR and Russian propaganda has also been included.Темой статьи является последний период активной деятельности генерала Алексея Брусилова в области военного дела – его судьба во время гражданской войны и активная служба в Красной Армии. Относительно много внимания в работе посвящено 1923–1924 годам, когда герой этой статьи служил генеральным инспектором кавалерии в Советской армии, способствуя усилению профессионализма этих войск. Из-за отсутствия каких-либо исследований на польском языке об этом человеке автор счел необходимым представить описание солдатской карьеры генерала Брусилова в армии Российской империи до 1914 г., что придало работе более целостный характер и позволило критически оценить организационные и командные навыки командира из-под Луцка. Кратко описана также эволюция образа генерала Брусилова в историографии и пропаганде СССР и России

Relative gene expression of genes coding enzymes in intermediate steps of gibberellin biosynthesis.

<p><i>Medicago truncatula CYP714</i> gene (<i>Cytochrome 450 family</i>, known also as <i>Gibberellin 13-oxidases</i>, <i>GA13ox)</i> expression profiles during induction phase (21 days) of <i>Medicago truncatula</i> non-embryogenic genotype (M9) and variant with embryogenic phenotype (M9-10a). Expression in both lines measured relative to lowest observed expression set to 1. Two-way ANOVA with post-hoc Tukey-Kramer’s test with 0.05 confidence interval, significance between groups indicated with ** for P≤ 0.01,*** for P≤ 0.001 and **** for P≤ 0.0001. Bars indicate +/- SD (n = 3).</p

Relative gene expression of genes coding <i>GA20oxidases</i> in late steps of gibberellin biosynthesis.

<p><i>Medicago truncatula GA20ox (Gibberellin 20-oxidase)</i> gene expression during induction phase (21 days) of <i>Medicago truncatula</i> non-embryogenic genotype (M9) and variant with embryogenic phenotype (M9-10a). Expression in both lines measured relative to lowest observed expression set to 1. Two-way ANOVA with post-hoc Tukey-Kramer’s test with 0.05 confidence interval, significance between groups indicated with **** for P≤ 0.0001. Bars indicate +/- SD (n = 3).</p

Development of callus after GA₃ and PBZ application.

<p>Effects of GA₃ (a, c) and PBZ (b, d) on callus growth on SH induction medium of <i>Medicago truncatula</i> embryogenic variant (M9-10a) after 21 days. One-way ANOVA with 0.05 confidence interval and Sidak post-hoc test; significance between groups indicated with letters. Bars represent +/- SD (n = 3). Bar scale 1cm.</p

Gene expression and metabolite profiling of gibberellin biosynthesis during induction of somatic embryogenesis in <i>Medicago truncatula</i> Gaertn

<div><p>Gibberellins (GAs) are involved in the regulation of numerous developmental processes in plants including zygotic embryogenesis, but their biosynthesis and role during somatic embryogenesis (SE) is mostly unknown. In this study we show that during three week- long induction phase, when cells of leaf explants from non-embryogenic genotype (M9) and embryogenic variant (M9-10a) were forming the callus, all the bioactive gibberellins from non-13-hydroxylation (GA₄, GA₇) and 13-hydroxylation (GA₁, GA₅, GA₃, GA₆) pathways were present, but the contents of only a few of them differed between the tested lines. The GA₅₃ and GA₁₉ substrates synthesized by the 13-hydroxylation pathway accumulated specifically in the M9-10a line after the first week of induction; subsequently, among the bioactive gibberellins detected, only the content of GA₃ increased and appeared to be connected with acquisition of embryogenic competence. We fully annotated 20 <i>Medicago truncatula</i> orthologous genes coding the enzymes which catalyze all the known reactions of gibberellin biosynthesis. Our results indicate that, within all the genes tested, expression of only three: <i>MtCPS</i>, <i>MtGA3ox1</i> and <i>MtGA3ox2</i>, was specific to embryogenic explants and reflected the changes observed in GA₅₃, GA₁₉ and GA₃ contents. Moreover, by analyzing expression of <i>MtBBM</i>, SE marker gene, we confirmed the inhibitory effect of manipulation in GA_s metabolism, applying exogenous GA₃, which not only impaired the production of somatic embryos, but also significantly decreased expression of this gene.</p></div

Relative gene expression of genes coding enzymes in early steps of gibberellin biosynthesis.

<p><i>Medicago truncatula</i> genes: <i>CPS (ent-copalyl diphosphate synthase</i>), <i>KS (ent-kaurene synthase)</i>, <i>KO (ent-kaurene oxidase)</i>, <i>KAO (ent-kaurenoic acid oxidase)</i> expression profiles during induction phase (21 days) of <i>Medicago truncatula</i> non-embryogenic genotype (M9) and variant with embryogenic phenotype (M9-10a). Expression in both lines measured relative to the lowest observed expression set to 1. Two-way ANOVA with post-hoc Tukey-Kramer’s test with 0.05 confidence interval, significance between groups indicated with * for P≤ 0.05, ** for P≤ 0.01, *** for P≤ 0.001 and **** for P≤ 0.0001. Bars indicate +/- SD (n = 3).</p

Changes in gibberellin content.

<p>Changes in endogenous levels of 13-hydroxy gibberellin metabolites during the induction phase in <i>Medicago truncatula</i> non-embryogenic genotype (M9) and variant with embryogenic phenotype (M9-10a). Tw-way ANOVA with 0.05 confidence interval and Sidak post-hoc test; significance between groups indicated with * for P≤ 0.05, *** for P≤ 0.001 and **** for P≤ 0.0001. Bars indicate +/- SD (n = 3).</p

The gibberellins biosynthesis pathway in higher plants.

<p>The cellular localizations of metabolites are in plastids, endoplasmic reticulum and cytoplasm. Plant bioactive gibberellins are GA₄, GA₇, GA₁, GA₃, GA₅ and GA₆. Enzymes catalyzing subsequent reactions indicated in bold, abbreviations: <i>ent</i>-CDP, <i>ent</i>-copalyl diphosphate; (CPS), <i>ent</i>-copalyl diphosphate synthase; (KS), <i>ent</i>-kaurene synthase; (KO), <i>ent</i>-kaurene oxidase; (KAO), <i>ent</i>-kaurenoic acid oxidase; (GA13ox), Gibberellin 13-oxidase; (GA20ox), Gibberellin 20-oxidase; (GA3ox), Gibberellin 3-oxidase. Adapted from [<a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0182055#pone.0182055.ref007" target="_blank">7</a>, <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0182055#pone.0182055.ref008" target="_blank">8</a>].</p