Human androgen deficiency: insights gained from androgen receptor knockout mouse models

The mechanism of androgen action is complex. Recently, significant advances have been made into our understanding of how androgens act via the androgen receptor (AR) through the use of genetically modified mouse models. A number of global and tissue-specific AR knockout (ARKO) models have been generated using the Cre-loxP system which allows tissue- and/or cell-specific deletion. These ARKO models have examined a number of sites of androgen action including the cardiovascular system, the immune and hemopoetic system, bone, muscle, adipose tissue, the prostate and the brain. This review focuses on the insights that have been gained into human androgen deficiency through the use of ARKO mouse models at each of these sites of action, and highlights the strengths and limitations of these Cre-loxP mouse models that should be considered to ensure accurate interpretation of the phenotype