Effect of the length of the question session.

A) Histogram of the number of questions asked at the end of the talk by type of sessions (color coded), B) Total number of questions asked by gender (indicated by the color of the bars) with respect to the total number of questions asked at the end of the talk (used as a proxy for the duration of question session). (TIF)</p

Qualitative analysis of interview transcripts.

Each line of the transcript is assigned to a child code either derived from the research questions or created to represent the recurring topics. When all the transcripts have been processed, the resulting child codes are gathered into broader categories : parent codes. Finally parent codes are summarized in themes. (TIF)</p

Overview of the study with the list of data collected, the main data processing steps and the main analysis steps.

Overview of the study with the list of data collected, the main data processing steps and the main analysis steps.</p

Interview consent form.

Success in STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Math) remains influenced by race, gender, and socioeconomic status. Here, we focus on the impact of gender on question-asking behavior during the 2021 JOBIM virtual conference (Journées Ouvertes en Biologie et Mathématiques). We gathered quantitative and qualitative data including : demographic information, question asking motivations, live observations and interviews of participants. Quantitative analyses include unprecedented figures such as the fraction of the audience identifying as LGBTQIA+ and an increased attendance of women in virtual conferences. Although parity was reached in the audience, women asked half as many questions as men. This under-representation persisted after accounting for seniority of the asker. Interviews of participants highlighted several barriers to oral expression encountered by women and gender minorities : negative reactions to their speech, discouragement to pursue a career in research, and gender discrimination/sexual harassment. Informed by the study, guidelines for conference organizers have been written. The story behind the making of this study has been highlighted in a Nature Career article.</div

S5 Fig -

Success in STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Math) remains influenced by race, gender, and socioeconomic status. Here, we focus on the impact of gender on question-asking behavior during the 2021 JOBIM virtual conference (Journées Ouvertes en Biologie et Mathématiques). We gathered quantitative and qualitative data including : demographic information, question asking motivations, live observations and interviews of participants. Quantitative analyses include unprecedented figures such as the fraction of the audience identifying as LGBTQIA+ and an increased attendance of women in virtual conferences. Although parity was reached in the audience, women asked half as many questions as men. This under-representation persisted after accounting for seniority of the asker. Interviews of participants highlighted several barriers to oral expression encountered by women and gender minorities : negative reactions to their speech, discouragement to pursue a career in research, and gender discrimination/sexual harassment. Informed by the study, guidelines for conference organizers have been written. The story behind the making of this study has been highlighted in a Nature Career article.</div

Predicted mean rate for junior and senior academics conditioned by their gender.

By senior, we refer to an attendee older than 35 and with a permanent position. By junior, we refer to an attendee younger than 35 and with a short term contract. (TIF)</p

Observation guidelines and form.

Success in STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Math) remains influenced by race, gender, and socioeconomic status. Here, we focus on the impact of gender on question-asking behavior during the 2021 JOBIM virtual conference (Journées Ouvertes en Biologie et Mathématiques). We gathered quantitative and qualitative data including : demographic information, question asking motivations, live observations and interviews of participants. Quantitative analyses include unprecedented figures such as the fraction of the audience identifying as LGBTQIA+ and an increased attendance of women in virtual conferences. Although parity was reached in the audience, women asked half as many questions as men. This under-representation persisted after accounting for seniority of the asker. Interviews of participants highlighted several barriers to oral expression encountered by women and gender minorities : negative reactions to their speech, discouragement to pursue a career in research, and gender discrimination/sexual harassment. Informed by the study, guidelines for conference organizers have been written. The story behind the making of this study has been highlighted in a Nature Career article.</div

Distribution of plasmid <i>nodABC</i> (p<i>nod</i>) and plasmid <i>imuBC</i> (p<i>imuBC</i>) genes among α- and β-proteobacteria.

<p>Blue and yellow rectangles indicate presence and absence of genes in the corresponding genome, respectively, as assayed by BlastP analysis. Dark blue rectangles indicate <i>nodABC</i> and <i>imuBC</i> genes co-localized on the same plasmid. α- and β-proteobacteria are arranged according to their position on the core genome phylogeny. Species of the same genus are similarly colored. See <a href="http://www.plosbiology.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pbio.1001942#pbio.1001942.s009" target="_blank">Table S3</a> for details.</p

Experimental evolution of <i>R. solanacearum</i> into <i>Mimosa</i> symbionts.

<p>(A) <i>R. solanacearum</i> GMI1000 containing the <i>C. taiwanensis</i> symbiotic pRalta plasmid was evolved under <i>M. pudica</i> selection pressure. In a first step, three spontaneous <i>M. pudica</i>-nodulating derivatives of <i>GMI1000</i> pRalta, CBM212, CBM349, and CBM356 (selection cycle), were selected using <i>M. pudica</i> as a trap <a href="http://www.plosbiology.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pbio.1001942#pbio.1001942-Marchetti1" target="_blank">[24]</a>. Nine independent lineages have been then derived from CBM212 (A–C), CBM349 (G–I), and CBM356 (M, N, S) using serial <i>M. pudica</i>-bacteria co-culture cycles of 21 days (evolution cycles) <a href="http://www.plosbiology.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pbio.1001942#pbio.1001942-Marchetti1" target="_blank">[24]</a>,<a href="http://www.plosbiology.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pbio.1001942#pbio.1001942-Guan1" target="_blank">[25]</a>. Green and red arrow heads indicate activation of nodulation and intracellular infection, respectively <a href="http://www.plosbiology.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pbio.1001942#pbio.1001942-Marchetti1" target="_blank">[24]</a>,<a href="http://www.plosbiology.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pbio.1001942#pbio.1001942-Guan1" target="_blank">[25]</a>. Numbers between brackets indicate the total number of point mutations detected in each clone relative to its closest re-sequenced ancestor. Point mutations are available on the Microscope platform (<a href="https://www.genoscope.cns.fr/agc/microscope/expdata/evoProject.php" target="_blank">https://www.genoscope.cns.fr/agc/microscope/expdata/evoProject.php</a>). (B–D) Nodulation and infection have been dramatically improved over 16 evolution cycles. <i>In planta</i> fitness (B) and nodulation competitiveness (C) of final clones relative to their respective nodulating ancestors, following equal co-inoculation of each of the nine final/ancestral pairs. Nodule infectiveness (D) of final clones (Ev) as compared to ancestors (An). Graphs summarize data from <a href="http://www.plosbiology.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pbio.1001942#pbio.1001942-Guan1" target="_blank">[25]</a>,<a href="http://www.plosbiology.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pbio.1001942#pbio.1001942-Marchetti2" target="_blank">[26]</a>. *<i>p</i>-value (t-test) <0.05. (E) In each cycle, bacteria were inoculated in the Jensen plant medium. Root nodules, which appeared from 5 days after inoculation, were each induced by a single bacterial cell that subsequently multiplied within nodule tissue <a href="http://www.plosbiology.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pbio.1001942#pbio.1001942-Gage1" target="_blank">[56]</a>. In the selection and evolution cycles bacteria spent ∼21 days and from a few days up to 14 days in the plant medium, respectively. Population sizes are estimates. gen., generations. Raw data are provided in <a href="http://www.plosbiology.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pbio.1001942#pbio.1001942.s013" target="_blank">Data S1</a>.</p

Model for symbiotic and mutagenic plasmid-driven evolution of rhizobia.

<p>Following horizontal transfer of a symbiotic plasmid to a soil bacterium, the recipient genome accumulates environment-induced mutations that lead to phenotypic diversification. The most beneficial variants are selected by the plant and clonally multiply within nodules before being released. Rounds of <i>ex planta</i> phenotypic diversification/plant selection/clonal multiplication may have driven the adaptation process <i>in natura</i>.</p