Climate, Turks (Tujue) and China 534–545

В статье на основе современных климатических данных и письменных источников рассматриваются природные аномалии 534–545 гг., во время которых отмечалось сильное и продолжительное похолодание, повлекшее за собой глобальные этнополитические изменения в средневековом мире. Это время оказалось судьбоносным для Центральной Азии и населявших ее кочевников — восточных тюрков. Впервые выдвигается тезис о влиянии природно-климатических аномалий 534–545 гг. как главной предпосылки образования и возвышения государства древних тюрков — Тюркского каганата.The work analyses the natural anomalies of 534–545 with the help of modern climate data and written sources. The period in question was noted for its sharp and long lasting cooling that led to global ethno-political changes in the Medieval Ages. It exerted a strong influence on Central Asia and the nomads who peopled it — the Turks (Tujue). This work is the first to advance the thesis on the influence of natural and climatic anomalies of 534–545 as being the main prerequisite for the birth and rise of the ancient Turkic state – the Turkic Empire. The Turks took advantage of the complicated political situation in the region and set up a powerful and military efficient state. Thus, the Turkic Empire became a stronghold together with other powerful states of the time, namely: China, the Sasanian Empire and Byzantium, which grew weaker due to extreme climate, impact (starvation and plague)

Turkic-Chinese Relations in East and Central Asia in VI—VIII Centuries

The article deals with the problem of trade relations between the Turkic Qaghanates and China in the VI—VIII centuries. At that time, the zone of contact between steppe Mongolia and the northern Chinese borders became a place of active trade exchange, in which nomads, Chinese, and Sogdians participated. The purpose of the article is to analyze trade relations along the territory of contact between China and the Turkic Qaghanate in the VI—VIII centuries and to identify the economic significance of the Turkic-Chinese frontier for international trade relations in the Central Asian region. As a result of the analysis, it was shown that the strengthening of the influence of the Turks and China in Central Asia contributed to the establishment of stable trade along the Silk Road. Based on the analysis of Chinese sources, it was revealed that Chinese silk and Turkic horses have become the main goods involved in the exchange in the frontier zone. As a result, the authors conclude that trade along the frontier zone stimulated the entire system of trade relations in Central Asia. China’s need for nomadic horses led to huge shipments of silk fabrics to the steppe. The Turkic qaghans sold the accumulated silk to the Sogdians, who distributed it in the markets of the Central Asian region, sent it to Iran and Byzantium. Thus, due to trade, a symbiosis of China and the steppe region was created, international contacts intensified

Russian Tea Trade in Hankou during Second Half of 19th Century: Production of Brick Tea

This article addresses the issue of producing the socalled “brick tea” in China at Russian factories during the second half of the 19th century. Compressed teas constituted the second largest group after looseleaf teas highlighted in prerevolutionary Russian literature, sources, and statistics among Chinese teas exported to the Russian market. The study explores aspects of brick tea production that have been least covered in previous historiography. These include issues related to the procurement of raw materials for further pressing at Russian factories, pricing strategies for this product, and the accompanying competition. The experience of utilizing hydraulic presses for more efficient tea production, as well as the dynamics and volumes of brick tea production, are examined. The research revealed that in the latter half of the 19th century, Russian entrepreneurs in Hankou successfully organized the process of fabricating pressed teas, thereby contributing to the strengthening and further development of Russo-Chinese relations. Documents from central Russian archives were utilized in this study, enabling the unveiling of many previously unexplored aspects of the history of Russo-Chinese trade

Activity of Russian Entrepreneurs in Field of Tea Production in Yangtze River Valley in Second Half of 19th Century

The development of the Russian tea industry in the Chinese provinces along the Yangtze River valley in the second half of the 19th century is examined in the article. It is noted that among the regions where Russian tea factories were located, the main role belonged to the province of Hubei, in addition, the presence of production in the provinces of Hunan and Jiangxi was revealed. The historical situation in which the Russian tea industry arose is studied. Based on archival and published material, the number of Russian factories in Central China is shown. It is revealed that in the 70s of the 19th century, Russian trading houses operating in China began to transfer factories from the interior of Hubei province to the port of Hankou. It has been determined that cheap brick tea has become the main commodity produced in Russian factories, while Russian entrepreneurs are gradually abandoning the production of long leaf tea. Separately, the features of tea production and the organization of the workflow were studied. It is proved that the Russian tea factory in China has become one of the important factors of not only economic, but also socio-cultural contact between Russian and Chinese civilizations

Constructing the Frontier: Russian-Chinese Trade as a Factor in the Modernization of the Far East at the Turn of the 19th and 20th Centuries

The article delves into the development of the transport and logistical infrastructure on the Far Eastern frontier of the Russian Empire during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Throughout the period under study, challenges that emerged in the trade relations between Russia and China led to the creation of a new freight transport system for Russian-Chinese trading. This system proposed the integration of rail and maritime communication, with a sea port acting as the central logistical hub. This vision materialized with the construction of Russian railways in Manchuria, the leasing of Port Russian Dalian on the Liaodong Peninsula, and the initiation of maritime shipping by the China Eastern Railway Company. The article aims to systematically investigate the foundational concepts and the actualization of each segment of this new infrastructure. The research uncovered that the railways, sea port, and maritime shipping orchestrated by the Russian Empire in the Far East were viewed as cohesive elements of a unified trade and transport corridor. This corridor’s primary goal was to forge an effective linkage with the Pacific region. The data assessed in the study indicates that the Chinese ports and market stood as the foremost objectives for Russia’s geoeconomic pursuits in the Far East. In conclusion, the study underscores the importance of these novel infrastructural developments in the frontier modernization of the Far Eastern boundary shared by Russia and China. © 2023 Saint Petersburg State University of Aerospace Instrumentation. All rights reserved.Russian Science Foundation, RSF: 22-78-00050Исследование выполнено за счет гранта Российского научного фонда № 22-78-00050 «Система торговых отношений России и Китая во второй поло-вине XIX – начале XX в.», https://rscf.ru/project/22-78-00050 The study was supported by the Russian Science Foundation grant No. 22-78-00050 “The system of trade relations between Russia and China in the second half of the 19th — early 20th centuries”, https://rscf.ru/project/22-78-0005

Russian Kerosene on the Chinese Market in the late 19th – early 20th centuries

The article raises the problem of Russian kerosene trade on the market of the Qing Empire in the late 19th – early 20th centuries. During the second half of the 19th century, the oil industry of the Russian Empire began to actively explore foreign markets in Europe and Asia, including the Chinese market. At the same time, other major world exporters of petroleum products – the American company Standard Oil, the Dutch company Royal Dutch and the English Shell were also interested in developing the Chinese market. As a result, at the beginning of the 20th century, Russian kerosene was practically ousted from the Chinese market. The article examines the general situation of foreign kerosene trade in China; the activities of the main companies selling kerosene; the reconstruction of the process of kerosene delivery to China; the organization of trade in goods on the Chinese market. The materials of the central archives of Russia (Archive of the foreign policy of the Russian Empire, Russian state historical archive) also helped to reconstruct the process of trading Russian kerosene in certain "open" ports of the Qing Empire – Tianjin, Fuzhou, etc. The main difficulties associated with the Russian kerosene trade in China are shown, the main reasons for the decline of this trade direction are identified. Copyright © 2022 by Cherkas Global University.Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation, MinobrnaukaThe research funding from the Ministry of Science and Higher Education of the Russian Federation (Ural Federal University Program of Development within the Priority-2030 Program) is gratefully acknowledged

Russian Merchant Shipping in Manchuria in the late 19th – early 20th centuries

The article deals with the problem of Russian merchant shipping along the Manchurian Sungari River in the late 19th – early 20th centuries. Initially, private entrepreneurs-ship owners, Amur steamship companies and steamships of the CER Society took part in it, after the Russo-Japanese War in Manchuria, only ships of the CER Society remained to operate. The Russian railway in Manchuria became the most important factor in supporting Russian merchant shipping along the Songhua, since in the absence of access to the South Manchurian market, the river acted as a natural supply route to the CER. River trade in Manchuria allowed Russia to solve several strategic issues. Firstly, navigation along the Songhua River has always been considered by the Russian authorities to maintain their own influence in Northeast China. Secondly, the delivery of grain and livestock from the Manchurian cities made it possible to provide the Far Eastern periphery of Russia with provisions. The article studies in detail the listed features and stages of Russian navigation along the Songhua River, analyses the statistical data on cargo transportation on Russian steamships, and examines the main problems faced by river navigation in Manchuria. The study is based on little-studied materials from the Russian State Historical Archive. Copyright © 2023 by Cherkas Global University.Russian Science Foundation, RSF: 22-78-00050Исследование выполнено за счет гранта Российского научного фонда № 22-78-00050 «Система торговых отношений России и Китая во второй половине XIX – начале XX в.», https://rscf.ru/project/22-78-00050/ The study was supported by the Russian Science Foundation grant № 22-78-00050 “The system of trade relations between Russia and China in the second half of the 19th — early 20th centuries”, https://rscf.ru/project/22-78-0005

Russian Tea Business in Hankou in the second half of the 19th century: Baikhovi Tea Purchase Transactions

The article studies the activities of Russian entrepreneurs in the Chinese port of Hankou as part of the purchase of tea for the Russian market. Baikhovi tea was a product under which Russian pre-revolutionary literature, source base and statistics understood the most expensive varieties of Chinese tea, grown and processed on Chinese plantations and factories and sent for sale to foreigners in the port of Hankou. This aspect is a particular issue of Russian-Chinese trade in the second half of the 19th century, but it seems important for a more in-depth study of this topic and expanding scientific knowledge about Russian-Chinese relations in general. The article discusses the features of the production and transportation of baikhovi tea to the Hankou market, issues of tea pricing, the buying and selling process, factors influencing the trade of baikhovi tea in Hankou, aspects of competition between the tea trade of Hankou and Shanghai and the competition of foreign trading houses for the purchase of this product and shipment it to the Russian market. The conclusions of the work summarize the main results of the study and show the significance of the participation of Russian entrepreneurs in the tea trade for Russian-Chinese relations at the time under review. © 2023 International Network Center for Fundamental and Applied Research. All rights reserved.Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation, MinobrnaukaThe research funding from the Ministry of Science and Higher Education of the Russian Federation (Ural Federal University Program of Development within the Priority-2030 Program) is gratefully acknowledged

Performance and running experience of the Belle II silicon vertex detector

The Belle II silicon vertex detector is one of the vertex detectors in the Belle II experiment. The detector reads out the signals from the double-sided silicon strip sensors with the APV25 front-end readout ASIC, adopting the chip-on-sensor concept to minimize the strip noise. The detector has been operated in the experiment since the spring of 2019. Analyzing the acquired data during the beam collisions, the excellent performance of the detector is confirmed. Also, the radiation dose and 1-MeV equivalent neutron fluence of the detector are estimated using the measured dose rates of the diamond sensors installed on the beam pipe and are compared with the measured radiation effects in the strip noise, leakage current, and depletion voltage. This paper briefly introduces the main features of the silicon vertex detector, and then reports on the measured performance and radiation effects of the first two years of running experience of the detector

New Results from the Silicon Vertex Detector of the Belle II Experiment

The Silicon Vertex Detector (SVD) consists of four layers of double-sided silicon strip sensors. The SVD is one of the two vertex subdetectors within Belle II. Since the start of data taking in 2019 at the Super-KEKB collider (KEK, Japan), which has the highest peak-luminosity ever recorded, the SVD is operated reliably and with high efficiency, despite exposure to harsh beam background. Measurements using data show that the SVD has both high signal-to-noise ratio and hit efficiency, as well precise spatial resolution. Further these properties are stable over time. Recently the simulation has been tuned, using data, to improve the agrement between data and MC for cluster properties. The good hit-time resolution can be exploited to further improve the robustness against the higher levels of background expected as the instantaneous luminosity increases in the next years of running. First effects of radiation damage on strip noise, sensor currents and depletion voltage have been measured, although they do not have any detrimental effect on the performance of the detector