A Fundamental Study of Laser Beam Welding Aluminum-Lithium Alloy 2195 for Cryogenic Tank Applications

Based on the potential for decreasing costs of joining stiffeners to skin by laser beam welding, a fundamental research program was conducted to address the impediments identified during an initial study involving laser beam welding of aluminum-lithium alloys. Initial objectives of the program were the identification of governing mechanism responsible for process related porosity while establishing a multivariant relationship between process parameters and fusion zone geometry for laser beam welds of alloy 2195. A three-level fractional factorial experiment was conducted to establish quantitative relationships between primary laser beam processing parameters and critical weld attributes. Although process consistency appeared high for welds produced during partial completion of this study, numerous cracks on the top-surface of the welds were discovered during visual inspection and necessitated additional investigations concerning weld cracking. Two experiments were conducted to assess the effect of filler alloy additions on crack sensitivity: the first experiment was used to ascertain the effects of various filler alloys on cracking and the second experiment involved modification to process parameters for increasing filler metal dilution. Results indicated that filler alloys 4047 and 4145 showed promise for eliminating cracking

The feasibility of producing aluminum-lithium structures for cryogenic tankage applications by laser beam welding

Aluminum-lithium alloys exhibit high strength, high elastic modulus, and low density as well as excellent cryogenic mechanical properties making them ideal material candidates for cryogenic tanks. NASA has proposed the use of 'built-up' structure for panels fabricated into cryogenic tanks replacing current conventional machining. Superplastically formed stiffeners would be joined to sheet (tank skin) that had been roll formed to the radius of the tank in order to produce panels. Aluminum-lithium alloys of interest for producing the built-up structure include alloy 2095-T6 stiffeners to 2095-T8 sheet and alloy 8090-T6 stiffeners to 2090-T83 sheet. Laser welding, with comparable joint properties, offers the following advantages over conventional welding: higher production rates, minimal degradation within the heat affected zones, and full process automation. This study established process parameters for laser beam welding, mechanical property determinations, metallographic characterization, and fabrication of prototype panels. Tensile tests representing partial penetration of the skin alloys provided joint efficiencies between 65 and 77 percent, depending upon alloy and degree of penetration. Results of tension shear tests of lap welds indicated that the combination of 2095-T6 to 2090-T8 exhibited significantly higher weld shear strength at the interface in comparison to welds of 8090-T6 to 2090-T83. The increased shear strength associated with 2095 is believed to be due to the alloy's ability to precipitation strengthening (naturally age) after welding

Development of Advanced Wear and Corrosion Resistant Systems Through Laser Surface Alloying and Materials Simulations

Laser surfacing in the form of cladding, alloying, and modifications are gaining widespread use because of its ability to provide high deposition rates, low thermal distortion, and refined microstructure due to high solidification rates. Because of these advantages, laser surface alloying is considered a prime candidate for producing ultra-hard coatings through the establishment or in situ formation of composite structures. Therefore, a program was conducted by the Applied Research Laboratory, Pennsylvania State University and Oak Ridge National Laboratory to develop the scientific and engineering basis for performing laser-based surface modifications involving the addition of hard particles, such as carbides, borides, and nitrides, within a metallic matrix for improved wear, fatigue, creep, and corrosion resistance. This has involved the development of advanced laser processing and simulation techniques, along with the refinement and application of these techniques for predicting and selecting materials and processing parameters for the creation of new surfaces having improved properties over current coating technologies. This program has also resulted in the formulation of process and material simulation tools capable of examining the potential for the formation and retention of composite coatings and deposits produced using laser processing techniques, as well as positive laboratory demonstrations in producing these coatings. In conjunction with the process simulation techniques, the application of computational thermodynamic and kinetic models to design laser surface alloying materials was demonstrated and resulted in a vast improvement in the formulation of materials used for producing composite coatings. The methodology was used to identify materials and to selectively modify microstructures for increasing hardness of deposits produced by the laser surface alloying process. Computational thermodynamic calculations indicated that it was possible to induce the precipitation of titanium carbonitrides during laser surface alloying provided there was sufficient amount of dissolved titanium, carbon, and nitrogen in the liquid steel. This was confirmed experimentally by using a powder mixture of 431-martensitic steel, titanium carbide powder, and nitrogen shielding, during laser deposition to produce deposits exhibiting relatively high hardness (average surface hardness of 724 HV). The same approach was extended to direct diode laser processing and similar microstructures were attained. The above analysis was extended to develop an in-situ precipitation of Ti(CN) during laser deposition. The Ti addition was achieving by mixing the 431 martensitic steel powders with ferro-titanium. The dissolution of nitrogen was achieved by using 100% nitrogen shielding gas, which was indicated by thermodynamic analysis. Demonstrations were also conducted utilizing the tools developed during the program and resulted in several viable composite coating systems being identified. This included the use of TiC and ferro-titanium in martensitic-grade stainless steel matrix material with and without the use of active N2 shielding gas, WC hard particles in a martensitic-grade stainless steel matrix material, WC and BN in a nickel-based matrix material, and WC in highly alloyed iron-based matrix. Although these demonstrations indicated the potential of forming composite coatings, in certain instances, the intended industrial applications involved unique requirements, such as coating of internal surfaces, which hindered the full development of the improved coating technology. However, it is believed that the addition of common hard particles, such as WC or TiC, to matrix material representing martensitic grades of stainless steel offer opportunities for improved performance at relatively low material cost

Micro-manufacturing : research, technology outcomes and development issues

Besides continuing effort in developing MEMS-based manufacturing techniques, latest effort in Micro-manufacturing is also in Non-MEMS-based manufacturing. Research and technological development (RTD) in this field is encouraged by the increased demand on micro-components as well as promised development in the scaling down of the traditional macro-manufacturing processes for micro-length-scale manufacturing. This paper highlights some EU funded research activities in micro/nano-manufacturing, and gives examples of the latest development in micro-manufacturing methods/techniques, process chains, hybrid-processes, manufacturing equipment and supporting technologies/device, etc., which is followed by a summary of the achievements of the EU MASMICRO project. Finally, concluding remarks are given, which raise several issues concerning further development in micro-manufacturing

Application of computational thermodynamic and kinetic models to laser surface alloying

Surface physical and mechanical properties can be tailored to different needs by the laser surface alloying process. These property modifications are made by localized melting of substrate material by laser beams with addition of alloying elements as well as hard particles. Through selection of proper hard particles, modification of underlying microstructure through rapid cooling and controlled alloying addition, one can tailor these surfaces for required properties. However, these processes are developed through extensive experimental trial-anderror methodology. This research shows an alternate design methodology by which these processes can be designed through computational thermodynamic and kinetic models

A METHOD FOR THERMAL HISTORY PREDICTION DURING ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING USING FAR-FIELD TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENTS

Directed Energy Deposition is a near net-shape, additive manufacturing process that uses high-energy lasers for powder melting and consolidation. While a detailed knowledge of the thermal histories of the process can help understand and ultimately predict the resulting microstructure, residual-stresses, and/or material properties of the component, experimental limitations usually restrict all temperature measurements to far-field locations. When fixed, these measurements become increasingly removed from the laser/material interactions as the build process unfolds. To help offset this limitation, a relatively straightforward method using finite-elements and a fixed far-field measurement was developed that considers experimental processing conditions such as a moving heat source and relevant (and evolving) boundary conditions to generate more complete thermal histories. In essence, an inverse problem was iteratively solved using a direct computational approach. Once validated, the model was then used over multiple depositions with the outcome discussed relative to the agreement and disparities in peak temperatures, heating, and cooling rates. The increasing importance of the growing surface area and evolving radiative and convective boundary conditions with each layer was clearly demonstrate

Neutron diffraction studies of welds of aerospace aluminum alloys

Neutron diffraction and electron microscopy were done on residual stress in various regions comprising variable polarity plasma arc welds of alloys 2219 (Al-6.3Cu) and 2195 (Al-4.0Cu-1.0Li-0.5Mg-0.5Ag). Results indicate that lattice parameter changes in the various weld regions may be attributed to residual stresses generated during welding, as well as local changes in microstructure. Distribution of longitudinal and transverse stress of welded panels shows peaks of tension and compression, respectively, within the HAZ and corroborate earlier theoretical results. Position of these peaks are related to position of minimum strength within the HAZ, and the magnitude of these peaks are a fraction of the local yield strength in this region. Weldments of alloy 2195-T8 exhibited higher peak residual stress than alloy 2219-T87. Comparison of neutron diffraction and microstructural analysis indicate decreased lattice parameters associated with the solid solution of the near HAZ; this results in decreased apparent tensile residual stress within this region and may significantly alter interpretation of residual stress measurements of these alloys. Considerable relaxation of residual stress occurs during removal of specimens from welded panels and was used to aid in differentiating changes in lattice parameters attributed to residual stress from welding and modifications in microstructure

Development of Advanced Wear and Corrosion Resistant Systems Through Laser Surface Alloying and Materials Processing

The stability of tungsten carbide particles in iron-rich and nickel-rich liquid during the laser surface alloying (LSA) process was investigated. Kinetic calculations indicate a rapid dissolution of tungsten carbide particles in iron-rich liquid, as compared with the dissolution rate in nickel-rich liquid. Optical microscopy indicated a heterogeneous microstructure around the tungsten particles that is in agreement with concentration gradients predicted by kinetic calculation. The work demonstrates the applicability of computational thermodynamics and kinetic models for the LSA process