Helping athletes flourish using mindfulness and acceptance approaches: an introduction and mini review

Mindfulness and acceptance are core concepts of the third wave of cognitive and behavioral psychotherapies. Their aim is not to overpower thoughts and emotions by suppression and using control techniques but to change the relationships with them. This article focuses on mindfulness- and acceptance-based approaches in sports. It briefly outlines these approaches and concludes that they are characterized by promoting three processes, which are present-moment attention, metacognitive awareness, and acceptance. Subsequently, the paper describes one approach particularly suitable for sports in detail – Acceptance and Commitment Therapy – with a special focus on how athletes can promote psychological flexibility and thrive in their effort to perform. This paper further addresses the question of whether mindfulness- and acceptance-based approaches are effective in sports by summarizing research from the past five years in the form of a mini-review. Findings from 19 reviewed studies, including 15 controlled or randomized controlled studies, suggest that different athlete populations can benefit from mindfulness- and acceptance-based approaches in terms of athletic performance and well-being. Positive effects on performance and well-being could be mediated by other psychological processes, e.g., enhanced emotion regulation. Further research is needed, especially regarding the mechanisms that impact mindfulness- and acceptance-based interventions in sports

Mindfulness to Enhance Athletic Performance: Theoretical Considerations and Possible Impact Mechanism

Top athletes face various challenges in their career on and off the sports field. Sport psychologists teach techniques to help athletes to cope with these challenges. Over the last 30 years, the techniques used stem mainly from psychological skills training (PST), which is influenced mainly from cognitive-behavioral theories. Recently, interest in mindfulness-based interventions has increased in sport psychology. This article identifies the limits of PST and presents theoretical considerations how mindfulness-based interventions can amend PST. Further, it addresses in what form and by what mechanisms athletes could benefit. In reviewing current mindfulness literature, we conclude that it is important to distinguish between mindfulness practice and dispositional mindfulness. Mindfulness practice means the methods through which mindfulness is fostered, whereas dispositional mindfulness describes the tendency to be mindful in everyday life. In our conceptualization, we differ between three interwoven facets of mindfulness practice (intention, attention, and attitude), which are associated with six components of dispositional mindfulness. We consider that athletes with a higher degree in mindfulness practice and dispositional mindfulness will enhance the level of several required psychological skills through various impact mechanisms. Based on theoretical considerations, we suggest bare attention, experiential acceptance, values clarifications, self-regulation/negative emotion regulation, clarity about one’s internal life, exposure, flexibility, non-attachment, and rumination as possible impact mechanisms. A greater knowledge of the conceptualization of mindfulness and its impact on psychological skills could develop and improve the effectiveness of mindfulness based interventions in sports

Factors Contributing to Elite Athletes' Mental Health in the Junior-to-Senior Transition: A Mixed Methods Study.

The goals of this study were to examine factors that may affect the mental health of elite athletes during their junior-to-senior transition and to explore the types and frequency of facilitators and challenges athletes encounter during this transition. Using a cross-sectional, embedded QUAN(qual) mixed methods study design, we surveyed two samples for the study goals. All participants completed demographic data (e.g., gender, age, sports). Sample one (N = 394, Mage = 18.46 years, SD = 2.2) consisted of current transitioning athletes which completed questionnaires on stress, anxiety, depression, well-being, self-compassion, and social support. Mediation and moderation analyses revealed that stress leads to resource depletion, and that self-compassion can be an important resource for young athletes to draw upon to maintain their mental health. Regarding social support results were less conclusive. Sample two (N = 371, Mage = 27.70 years, SD = 8.3) consisted of athletes that have passed the transition. They responded to open questions about helpful strategies and challenges faced during their junior-to-senior transition, which were analyzed using thematic content analysis. Results showed that during the junior-to-senior transition, external resources were more frequently mentioned than internal resources when it came to facilitators. Furthermore, external challenges were perceived as hindering more frequently than internal challenges. These findings can guide practitioners by providing potential starting points for improving the mental health of transitioning elite athletes, as well as information on helpful strategies and barriers during the transition

Dispositional Mindfulness and Injury Time Loss in Soccer

Soccer injuries have a low prevalence, albeit prompting detrimental effects for individuals and teams, particularly with prolonged convalescence periods. Age and injury severity appear as the most robust correlates with recovery duration. The role of dispositional mindfulness remains unknown, however, despite considerable evidence that highlights positive effects of mindfulness on injury rehabilitation. This study sought to examine whether dispositional mindfulness explained additional variability in injury time loss in an elite sample of soccer players (N = 207). A series of moderated regression analyses examined whether dispositional mindfulness interacted with either age or injury severity in explaining the length of recovery from an injury. The main findings suggest that dispositional mindfulness was unrelated with length of recovery. In contrast, age and injury severity related robustly with the length of lesion recovery, which was even longer for the older players with very severe injuries. The current findings constitute a novelty in the study of injuries in soccer and open new research lines to determine whether mindfulness interventions are likely to contribute to shorten objective rehabilitation length for a more sustainable approach to sports injury

Prevalence of non-functional overreaching and the overtraining syndrome in Swiss elite athletes

Objectives: Fatigue and unaccountable underperformance are common for athletes, but there is a lack of empirical data regarding the prevalence of non-functional overreaching (NFOR) and the overtraining syndrome (OTS). Using the overtraining definition of the European College of Sport Science (ECSS), the present study aimed to explore the prevalence, symptoms and associated factors of NFOR/OTS across Swiss elite athletes in various sports. Method: 139 Swiss elite athletes (63 males and 76 females, Mage = 23.6, SDage = 5.6 y) from 26 different sports completed a1 7-item online survey about underperformance and symptoms of NFOR/OTS. 95% of the sample represented Switzerland in their sport. Athletes were classified as NFOR/ OTS by according to the overtraining definition of the ECSS. Data were analysed using Mann-Whitney U nonparametric tests and ANOVAs. Results: 9% of the athletes were classified as OTS and 21% as NFOR at least once in their career. The prevalence was significantly higher in medium-physical demand sports than in low-physical demand sports (p = .02). There were no significant differences in the NFOR/OTS prevalence between individual and team sports and female and male athletes. Competition level and training load had also no significant influence on the NFOR/OTS prevalence, although low-physical demand sports trained significantly less than medium- and high-physical demand sports. Injury/illness, loss of weight and sleep disturbance rates were significantly higher in the NFOR/OTS group. More than 70% of the NFOR/OTS athletes reported loss of motivation and emotional disturbances. Conclusions: The NFOR/OTS career prevalence rate of Swiss elite athletes can be estimated at approximately 30%. NFOR/ OTS is accompanied by biopsychosocial signs of maladjustment, e.g., emotional disturbances, loss of motivation, sleep disturbances, injury/illness and weight loss, but training load is not a predictor of NFOR/OT

Effects of Mindfulness Practice on Performance-Relevant Parameters and Performance Outcomes in Sports: A Meta-Analytical Review

Mindfulness as a present-oriented form of mental training affects cognitive processes and is increasingly considered meaningful for sport psychological training approaches. However, few intervention studies have examined the effects of mindfulness practice on physiological and psychological performance surrogates or on performance outcomes in sports.; The aim of the present meta-analytical review was to examine the effects of mindfulness practice or mindfulness-based interventions on physiological and psychological performance surrogates and on performance outcomes in sports in athletes over 15 years of age.; A structured literature search was conducted in six electronic databases (CINAHL, EMBASE, ISI Web of Knowledge, PsycINFO, MEDLINE and SPORTDiscus). The following search terms were used with Boolean conjunction: (mindful* OR meditat* OR yoga) AND (sport* OR train* OR exercis* OR intervent* OR perform* OR capacity OR skill*) AND (health* OR adult* OR athlete*).; Randomized and non-randomized controlled studies that compared mindfulness practice techniques as an intervention with an inactive control or a control that followed another psychological training program in healthy sportive participants were screened for eligibility.; Eligibility and study quality [Physiotherapy Evidence Database (PEDro)] scales were independently assessed by two researchers. A third independent researcher was consulted to achieve final consensus in case of disagreement between both researchers. Standardized mean differences (SMDs) were calculated as weighted Hedges' g and served as the main outcomes in comparing mindfulness practice versus control. Statistical analyses were conducted using a random-effects inverse-variance model.; Nine trials of fair study quality (mean PEDro score 5.4, standard deviation 1.1) with 290 healthy sportive participants (athletics, cyclists, dart throwers, hammer throwers, hockey players, hurdlers, judo fighters, rugby players, middle-distance runners, long-distance runners, shooters, sprinters, volleyball players) were included. Intervention time varied from 4 weeks to over 2 years. The practice frequency lasted from twice daily to just once a week, and the mean session time covered 50-60 min. In favor of mindfulness practice compared with the control condition, large effects with narrow confidence limits and low heterogeneity were found for mindfulness scores [SMD 1.03, 90% confidence interval (CI) 0.67-1.40, p < 0.001, I 2 = 17%]. Physiological performance indices depicted wide confidence limits accompanied with very large heterogeneity. However, the effect sizes remained very large, with confidence limits that did not overlap zero (SMD 3.62, 90% CI 0.03-7.21, p = 0.10, I 2 = 98%). Moderate to large effects were observed for both psychological performance surrogates (SMD 0.72, 90% CI 0.46-0.98, p < 0.001, I 2 = 14%) and performance outcomes in shooting and dart throwing (SMD 1.35, 90% CI 0.61-2.09, p = 0.003, I 2 = 82%).; Mindfulness practice consistently and beneficially modulates mindfulness scores. Furthermore, physiological and psychological surrogates improved to a meaningful extent following mindfulness practice, as well as performance outcomes in shooting and dart throwing. It seems reasonable to consider mindfulness practice strategies as a regular complementary mental skills training approach for athletes, at least in precision sports; however, more high-quality, randomized, controlled trials on mindfulness practice and performance improvements in diverse sport settings are needed

Differential and shared effects of psychological skills training and mindfulness training on performance-relevant psychological factors in sport: a randomized controlled trial

Background: Mental training intends to support athletes in mastering challenges in sport. The aim of our study was to investigate the differential and shared effects of psychological skills training and mindfulness training on psychological variables relevant to athletic performance (e.g., handling emotions or attention control). We assumed that each approach has its own strengths (e.g., mindfulness has a differential effect on the acceptance of emotions), but for some goals (e.g., attention control), both training forms are expected to be equally successful (i.e., shared effects). Methods: A total of 95 athletes (Mage = 24.43, SDage = 5.15; 49% female) were randomly assigned into three groups: psychological skills training intervention (PST), mindfulness training intervention (MT), and wait-list control group (WL). Participants completed a questionnaire battery before and after the training (pretest and posttest). We assessed mindfulness, use of mental strategies, handling of emotions, attention in training and competition, as well as the dealing with failure. The two intervention programs each consisted of four 90-min group workshops conducted over a period of 4 weeks. Results: Both interventions passed the manipulation check, that is, PST led to more mental strategies being used (probabilities > 95%), and MT led to an increase in two of three aspects of mindfulness (probabilities > 98%) when compared to WL. Compared to WL, both interventions equally improved in the ability to not let emotions interfere with performance (probabilities > 99%) and in controlling attention in training and competition (probabilities > 89%). To a lesser extend, both interventions showed shared improvements in dealing with failure indicated by more action orientation (probabilities > 82%). We found a differential effect of MT on decreased experiential avoidance: MT decreased compared to WL and PST (probabilities > 92%), whereas PST did not differ from WL. Conclusion: We conclude that both forms of mental training lead to improvements in performance-relevant psychological factors, especially concerning the handling of emotions and attention control. The results of our study suggest that different paths may lead to the desired outcomes, and accordingly, both forms of mental training seem justified

Six-month stability of individual differences in sports coaches’ burnout, self-compassion and social support

Using a three-wave prospective cross-lagged panel design, the study examined six-month stability of burnout, self-compassion and social support among sports coaches in terms of measurement invariance, mean-level change, rank-order stability, and structural stability. The participating coaches (N = 422; Mage = 44.48, SD = 11.03) completed an online questionnaire measuring self-compassion, social support, coach burnout and de- mographics at baseline and two follow-ups at three months and six months. The various forms of stability were assessed using structural equation modeling. There was no significant mean-level change in burnout, self- compassion, or social support, and all three constructs exhibited measurement invariance. Rank-order stability remained relatively high, ranging from 0.78 to 0.94 across the three time points. For all three constructs, co- variances between latent factors were invariant over time, indicating high structural stability. While self- compassion and social support were positively related, both were negatively related to coach burnout. These results confirm the importance of preventing and addressing symptoms of burnout, low self-compassion and poor social support in sports settings