Observations on the Hybrid F of Trachypthecus leucocephalus and T. francioisi and Its Offspring

The characteristics and behaviours of F1f (the female hybrid of Trachypithecus leucocephalus and T. francoisi) and its backcross offspring (Be1， Be2， Be3 and Be4) were extensively observed. The results showed that the hybrid F1f and its offspring had similar characteristics with T. francoisi. Besides the black hair was an overwhelmingly dominant character, the changing of their hair colour, the breeding behaviour of hybridized F1，and the growing process and behaviours of the hybrid F1f offspring resembled T. francoisi. However the feature of T. leucocephalus was nearly not present in the hybrid F1 and its offspring, excepting that in the development process the time for their hair colour change was longer and during their growth there existed imprinting phenomenon of T. leucocephalus. Therefore it can be inferred that the gene control of T. leucocephalus only played a supporting role and T. francoisi's gene dominated in the hybrid F1f and their offspring. The percent of weak infants for backcross langurs reaching 50%, which was higher than that of the general 10%-20% of T. francoisi, suggested a sign of outbreeding depression. Based on our observation that the hybrid F1f was able to reproduce its offspring successfully we can make a conclusion that T. leucocephalus should be considered as a subspecies of T. francoisi instead of an independent species

DNA methylation and transcriptome analysis reveal epigenomic differences among three macaque species

Abstract Macaques (genus Macaca) are the most widely distributed non‐human primates, and their evolutionary history, gene expression profiles, and genetic differences have been extensively studied. However, the DNA methylomes of macaque species are not available in public databases, which hampers understanding of epigenetic differences among macaque species. Epigenetic modifications can potentially affect development, physiology, behavior, and evolution. Here, we investigated the methylation patterns of the Tibetan macaque (M. thibetana; TM), Chinese rhesus macaque (M. mulatta lasiota; CR), and crab‐eating macaque (M. fascicularis; CE) through whole‐genome bisulfite sequencing from peripheral blood. We compared genome‐wide methylation site information for the three species. We identified 12,128 (CR vs. CE), 59,165 (CR vs. TM), and 39,751 (CE vs. TM) differentially methylated regions (DMRs) in the three macaques. Furthermore, we obtained the differentially expressed genes (DEGs) among the three macaque species. The differences between CR and CE were smaller at both the methylome and transcriptome levels than compared with TM (CR vs. TM and CE vs. TM). We also found a change in the density of single nucleotide mutations in DMRs relative to their flanking regions, indicating a potential mechanism through which genomic alterations may modulate methylation landscapes, thereby influencing the transcriptome. Functional enrichment analyses showed the DMR‐related genes were enriched in developmental processes and neurological functions, such as the growth hormone‐related pathway, insulin secretion pathway, thyroid hormone synthesis pathway, morphine addiction, and GABAergic synapses. These differences may be associated with variations in physiology and habitat among the macaques. Our study provides one of the first genome‐wide comparisons of genetic, gene expression, and epigenetic variations across different macaques. Our results should facilitate further research on comparative genomic and genetic differences in macaque species

Successful captive breeding of a Malayan pangolin population to the third filial generation

Pangolins are threatened placental mammals distributed in Africa and Asia. Many efforts have been undertaken in the last century to maintain pangolins in captivity, but only a few of them succeeded in maintaining and keeping this species in a controlled environment. This study reports the first systematic breeding of the Critically Endangered Malayan pangolin (Manis javanica) in captivity. Our captive breeding approach successfully improved the reproductive rate for both wild and captive-born female pangolins. From 2016 to 2020, we had 33 wild pangolins and produced 49 captive-born offspring spanning three filial generations. The female offspring further bred 18 offspring, of which 14 (78%) were conceived during the first time of cohabitation with males, and four offspring were conceived during the second cohabitation event, suggesting that they may practice copulation-induced ovulation. We observed that captive-born female pangolins could reach sexual maturity at 7–9 months (n = 4), and male pangolins could mate and successfully fertilise females at nine months age (n = 1). We also observed a female pangolin conceiving on the eighth day after parturition (the fifth day after the death of its pup). Our captive pangolins had a female-biased sex ratio of 1:0.5 at birth, unlike other known captive-born mammals. Also, captive-born pangolins were generally more viable after successful weaning and had a similar gestation length (~185 days) to wild pangolins. Most importantly, we report the first self-sustaining captive population of Malayan pangolins, and this species has an efficient reproduction strategy. These advances provide more comprehensive information for people to understand pangolins, and have implications for conserving endangered Malayan pangolins and providing scientific guidance to the management of other pangolin species

Relatively Recent Evolution of Pelage Coloration in Colobinae: Phylogeny and Phylogeography of Three Closely Related Langur Species

<div><p>To understand the evolutionary processes leading to the diversity of Asian colobines, we report here on a phylogenetic, phylogeographical and population genetic analysis of three closely related langurs, <i>Trachypithecus francoisi</i>, <i>T. poliocephalus</i> and <i>T. leucocephalus</i>, which are all characterized by different pelage coloration predominantly on the head and shoulders. Therefore, we sequenced a 395 bp long fragment of the mitochondrial control region from 178 <i>T. francoisi</i>, 54 <i>T. leucocephalus</i> and 19 <i>T. poliocephalus</i> individuals, representing all extant populations of these three species. We found 29 haplotypes in <i>T. francoisi,</i> 12 haplotypes in <i>T. leucocephalus</i> and three haplotypes in <i>T. poliocephalus</i>. <i>T. leucocephalus</i> and <i>T. poliocephalus</i> form monophyletic clades, which are both nested within <i>T. francoisi</i>, and diverged from <i>T. francoisi</i> recently, 0.46-0.27 (<i>T. leucocephalus</i>) and 0.50-0.25 million years ago (<i>T. poliocephalus</i>). Thus, <i>T. francoisi</i> appears as a polyphyletic group, while <i>T. leucocephalus</i> and <i>T. poliocephalus</i> are most likely independent descendents of <i>T. francoisi</i> that are both physically separated from <i>T. francoisi</i> populations by rivers, open sea or larger habitat gaps. Since <i>T. francoisi</i> populations show no variability in pelage coloration, pelage coloration in <i>T. leucocephalus</i> and <i>T. poliocephalus</i> is most likely the result of new genetic mutations after the split from <i>T. francoisi</i> and not of the fixation of different characters derived from an ancestral polymorphism. This case study highlights that morphological changes for example in pelage coloration can occur in isolated populations in relatively short time periods and it provides a solid basis for studies in related species. Nevertheless, to fully understand the evolutionary history of these three langur species, nuclear loci should be investigated as well.</p></div

Head and shoulder coloration of François’s langur (<i>Trachypithecus francoisi</i>; left), white-headed langur (<i>T. leucocephalus</i>; middle) and golden-headed langur (<i>T. poliocephalus</i>; right).

<p>Head and shoulder coloration of François’s langur (<i>Trachypithecus francoisi</i>; left), white-headed langur (<i>T. leucocephalus</i>; middle) and golden-headed langur (<i>T. poliocephalus</i>; right).</p

Minimum-spanning network for <i>T. francoisi, T. leucocephalus</i> and <i>T. poliocephalus</i> haplotypes.

<p>Each circle represents a haplotype and the diameter scales to haplotype frequency. Mutational steps are represented by black dots on lines connecting haplotypes. Sampling lots are presented as colored circles.</p

Distribution and sampling sites of <i>T. francoisi</i> (Lots 01–13), <i>T. leucocephalus</i> (Lots 14–16) and <i>T. poliocephalus</i> (Lot 17).

<p>Distribution and sampling sites of <i>T. francoisi</i> (Lots 01–13), <i>T. leucocephalus</i> (Lots 14–16) and <i>T. poliocephalus</i> (Lot 17).</p

Phylogenetic relationships among <i>T. francoisi, T. leucocephalus</i> and <i>T. poliocephalus</i> haplotypes.

<p>Labels refer to haplotype identification numbers (see <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0061659#pone.0061659.s001" target="_blank">Table S1</a>). Values above branches indicate support for each node based on ML/MP/Bayesian algorithms, respectively. Bootstrap values <50% are not shown. Divergence age estimates for major nodes are depicted in circles along with their 95% credibility intervals (grey bars). Sampling lots are presented as colored rectangles.</p