Improving the altimetric rain record from Jason-1 & Jason-2

Dual-frequency rain-flagging has long been a standard part of altimetric data analysis, both for quality control of the data and for the study of rain itself, because altimeters can provide a finer spatial sampling of rain than can passive microwave instruments. However, there have been many varied implementations, using different records of the surface backscatter and different thresholds. This paper compares four different measures available for the recently-launched Jason-2. The evaluation compares these measures against clearly desired properties, finding that in most cases the adjusted backscatter and that from the ice retracker perform much better than that recommended in the users' handbook. The adjusted backscatter measure also provides a much better link to observations from Jason-1, opening up a much longer period for consistent rain investigations, and enabling greatly improved analysis of the short-scale variability of precipitation. Initial analysis shows that although the spatial and temporal gradients of backscatter increase at very low winds, the spatial gradients in rain attenuation are concentrated where rainfall is greatest, whilst the temporal changes have a simple broad latitudinal pattern

Rain and ice flagging of Envisat altimeter and MWR data

Altimetry range, wave height, and wind speed measurements are often corrupted by two effects over the ocean: rain and sea-ice. Radiometer measurements, which provide the altimetric wet troposphere correction, are similarly corrupted by the presence of rain or sea-ice in the instrument's footprint. To avoid contamination of sea surface height measurements, it is imperative that data influenced by either of these effects be edited out. The waveform “peakiness” parameter, available on the GDR data sets is effective at identifying sea-ice returns when stringent thresholds are applied. The mean relationship between backscatter (sigma0) at the two altimeter frequencies allows one to flag data impacted by both rain and sea-ice. We present here a new method for flagging rain or sea-ice contaminated data, based on two-dimensional histograms of sigma0

Agulhas ring transport efficiency from combined satellite altimetry and Argo profiles

Agulhas rings are one of the main processes contributing to the westward transport of Agulhas leakage water across the South Atlantic basin. Here, we quantified the water transported and exchanged by three Agulhas rings by combining remote‐sensing altimetry and in‐situ Argo observations. Satellite velocities showed that two of the eddies formed within the Cape Basin west of South Africa at the beginning of 2013 and reached the Mid‐Atlantic Ridge by the end of 2014. There, they merged forming the third eddy which dissipated a year later when it approached the Brazilian continental shelf. Eddy structure reconstructed from Argo profiles showed that the eddies were at least 1500‐m deep and that their dynamics was strongly affected by the two open‐ocean ridges encountered along their path. Between the ridges, eddy volumes were mostly conserved, but waters were continuously exchanged. During eddy dissipation, volume losses and water exchanges were more pronounced at depth. These findings highlight the importance of combining surface with in‐situ information to accurately represent Agulhas ring transport and exchanges. Overall, the eddies transported roughly 0.5 × 1013 m3 of water from the Cape Basin to west of 30° W in a 3‐year span. Lagrangian diagnostics indicated that, after an initial period of instability, the surface waters exchanged by the eddies along their tracks dispersed roughly in the same direction as the eddies, albeit at a much slower rate. These results further confirm that Agulhas eddies are the most efficient process for westward transport across the South Atlantic basin

Sea state and rain: a second take on dual-frequency altimetry

TOPEX and Jason were the first two dual-frequency altimeters in space, with both operating at Ku- and C-band. Each thus gives two measurements of the normalized backscatter, sigma0, (from which wind speed is calculated) and two estimates of wave height. Departures from a well-defined relationship between the Ku- and C-band sigma0 values give an indication of rain.This paper investigates differences between the two instruments using data from Jason's verification phase. Jason's Ku-band estimates of wave height are ~1.8% less than TOPEX's, whereas its sigma0 values are higher. When these effects have been removed the root mean square (r.m.s.) mismatch between TOPEX and Jason's Ku-band observations is close to that for TOPEX's observations at its two frequencies, and the changes in sigma0 with varying wave height conditions are the same for the two altimeters. Rain flagging and quantitative estimates of rain rate are both based on the atmospheric attenuation derived from the sigma0 measurements at the two frequencies. The attenuation estimates of TOPEX and Jason agree very well, and a threshold of -0.5 dB is effective at removing the majority of spurious data records from the Jason GDRs. In the high sigma0 regime, anomalous data can be cause by processes other than rain. Consequently, for these low wind conditions, neither can reliable rain detection be based on altimetry alone, nor can a generic rain flag be expected to remove all suspect data

Measuring rainfall from above and below the sea surface

Satellites play a major role in the determination of the rainfall at sea. Researchers at Southampton Oceanography Centre (SOC) have been involved in two projects addressing this task. First they have been instrumental in developing techniques to retrieve rain rate information from the 10+ years of dual-frequency altimeter data. The TOPEX radar measures rainfall via the attenuation it causes, producing a climatology that is independent of those derived from passive microwave (PM) and infrared (IR) sensors. Because TOPEX is an active microwave sensor, it can have a much smaller footprint than PM sensors. Therefore it can be used to estimate the size of rain cells, showing that the ITCZ and mid-latitude storm tracks are characterized by larger rain systems than elsewhere. TOPEX’s simultaneous recording of wind and wave data reveal that, for mid-latitude systems, rain is most likely in association with developing seas.All satellite-based datasets require validation, and SOC's work on the development and testing of acoustic rain gauges is the second aspect of this paper. By listening at a range of frequencies, an underwater hydrophone may distinguish the spectra of wind, rain, shipping etc., and estimate the wind speed or rain rate according to the magnitude of the signals. All our campaigns have shown a good acoustic response to changes in wind speed. However the quantitative inversion for recent trials has given values that are too high, possibly because of significant acoustic reflection from the sea bottom. The changes in spectral slope often agree with other observations of rain, although validation experiments in coastal regions are hampered by the extraneous sources present. Acoustic rain gauges would eventually see service not only for routine satellite validation, but also for real-time monitoring of locations of interest

Modeling Envisat RA-2 waveforms in the coastal zone: case-study of calm water contamination

Radar altimeters have so far had limited use in the coastal zone, the area with most societal impact. This is due to both lack of, or insufficient accuracy in the necessary corrections, and more complicated altimeter signals. This paper examines waveform data from the Envisat RA-2 as it passes regularly over Pianosa (a 10 km2 island in the NW Mediterranean). Forty-six repeat passes were analysed, with most showing a reduction in signal upon passing over the island, with weak early returns corresponding to the reflections from land. Intriguingly one third of cases showed an anomalously bright hyperbolic feature. This feature may be due to extremely calm waters in the Golfo della Botte (northern side of the island), but the cause of its intermittency is not clear. The modelling of waveforms in such a complex land/sea environment demonstrates the potential for sea surface height retrievals much closer to the coast than is achieved by routine processing. The long-term development of altimetric records in the coastal zone will not only improve the calibration of altimetric data with coastal tide gauges, but also greatly enhance the study of storm surges and other coastal phenomena

Weathering the storm: developments in the acoustic sensing of wind and rain

An Acoustic Rain Gauge (ARG) analyses the underwater sound levels across a wide frequency range, classifies the observed spectrum according to likely source and then determines the local wind speed or rain rate as appropriate. Thispaper covers a trial on the Scotian Shelf off Canada, comparing the geophysical information derived from the acoustic signals with those obtained from other sources

Satellite-observed SST and chlorophyll reveal contrasting dynamical-biological effects of mesoscale eddies in the North Atlantic

The influence of mesoscale eddies on chlorophyll (Chl) has received significant attention due to Chl being a proxy for phytoplankton, which plays a crucial role in marine ecosystems. Solely relying on the analysis of satellite-observed Chl poses challenges in determining the phytoplankton response to mesoscale eddies. To address this, our study takes a collaborative approach, utilizing satellite-derived sea surface temperature anomalies (SSTA) and chlorophyll anomalies (CHLA) to comprehensively investigate the dynamical-biological processes associated with eddies in the subtropical and mid-latitude North Atlantic. In the subtropics, the patterns in CHLA and SSTA predominantly exhibit a dipole nature, with the dipole component providing more than 70% of the explained variance (EV). This suggests that eddy stirring is the dominant mechanism driving the observed anomaly patterns. Conversely, in the mid-latitudes, the monopole components (TM) explain more than 60% of the EV, implying a more influential role for eddy trapping and vertical modulations. The signs of the TM of eddy SSTA persist throughout their lifetime, being consistent with the lowering (raising) of isopycnals within AEs (CEs). However, the subtropical CHLA response is higher in AEs than CEs, indicating additional factors, such as eddy-induced Ekman pumping and/or mixing to a deeper level may be important. This finding is also corroborated by subsurface observations from Argo floats. At mid-latitudes, there is a clear inverse correspondence between the CHLA and mixed layer depth. In contrast, no significant correlation is observed in the subtropics, except during winter when a positive relationship emerges. These patterns suggest that phytoplankton exhibit highly diverse responses to the physical dynamics associated with eddies. Our work offers a method to estimate eddy dynamical-biological impacts on phytoplankton using satellite products, compensating for the limitations of in-situ observations. It also reveals potential contributions to marine primary production, global carbon cycles, and the development of biogeochemical models