Bioavailability and Antioxidant Activity of Rambutan (<i>Nephelium lappaceum</i>) Peel Polyphenols during <i>in Vitro</i> Simulated Gastrointestinal Digestion, Caco‑2 Monolayer Cell Model Application, and Colonic Fermentation

The bioavailability of rambutan peel polyphenols (RPPs) was studied via in vitro simulated digestion, a Caco-2 monolayer cell model, and colonic fermentation. Total phenolic content of RPPs decreased with the progress of the simulated digestion. A total of 38 phenolic compounds were identified during the digestion and colonic fermentation, of which 12 new metabolites were found during colonic fermentation. The possible biotransformation pathways were inferred. Geraniin was transformed into corilagin, ellagic acid, and gallic acid during the digestion and colonic fermentation. Ellagic acid could be further transformed into urolithin under the action of intestinal microbiota. The transformation of ellagitannins could be beneficial to transport on Caco-2 monolayer cell. The antioxidant capacity of RPPs increased with the progress of gastrointestinal digestion. Furthermore, RPPs could increase the yield of short-chain fatty acids, decrease the pH value, promote the growth of beneficial bacteria, and inhibit the growth of pathogenic Escherichia coli/Shigella during colonic fermentation

Comparative Study of the Effects of Dietary-Free and -Bound Nε-Carboxymethyllysine on Gut Microbiota and Intestinal Barrier

Nε-carboxymethyllysine (CML) is produced by a nonenzymatic reaction between reducing sugar and ε-amino group of lysine in food and exists as free and bound forms with varying digestibility and absorption properties in vivo, causing diverse interactions with gut microbiota. The effects of different forms of dietary CML on the gut microbiota and intestinal barrier of mice were explored. Mice were exposed to free and bound CML for 12 weeks, and colonic morphology, gut microbiota, fecal short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), intestinal barrier, and receptor for AGE (RAGE) signaling cascades were measured. The results indicated that dietary-free CML increased the relative abundance of SCFA-producing genera including Blautia, Faecalibacterium, Agathobacter, and Roseburia. In contrast, dietary-bound CML mainly increased the relative abundance of Akkermansia. Moreover, dietary-free and -bound CML promoted the gene and protein expression of zonula occludens-1 and claudin-1. Additionally, the intake of free and bound CML caused an upregulation of RAGE expression but did not activate downstream inflammatory pathways due to the upregulation of oligosaccharyl transferase complex protein 48 (AGER1) expression, indicating a delicate balance between protective and proinflammatory effects in vivo. Dietary-free and -bound CML could modulate the gut microbiota community and increase tight-junction expression, and dietary-free CML might exert a higher potential benefit on gut microbiota and SCFAs than dietary-bound CML

A New Basal Hadrosauroid Dinosaur (Dinosauria: Ornithopoda) with Transitional Features from the Late Cretaceous of Henan Province, China

<div><p>Background</p><p>Southwestern Henan Province in central China contains many down-faulted basins, including the Xixia Basin where the Upper Cretaceous continental sediments are well exposed. The Majiacun Formation is a major dinosaur-bearing stratigraphic unit that occurs in this basin.</p><p>Methodology/Principal Findings</p><p>A new basal hadrosauroid dinosaur, <i>Zhanghenglong yangchengensis</i> gen. et sp. nov., is named based on newly collected specimens from the middle Santonian Majiacun Formation of Zhoujiagou Village, Xixia Basin. Two transitional features between basal hadrosauroids and hadrosaurids are attached to the diagnosis of the new taxon, namely five maxillary foramina consisting of four small scattered ones anteroposteriorly arranged in a row and a large one adjacent to the articular facet for the jugal, and dentary tooth crowns bearing both median and distally offset primary ridges. <i>Zhanghenglong</i> also displays a unique combination of plesiomorphic and derived features of hadrosauroids, and is clearly morphologically transitional between basal hadrosauroids and hadrosaurids. Furthermore, some measurement attributes in osteology are applied to the quantitative analysis of <i>Zhanghenglong</i>. For these attributes, the partition of the dataset on most hadrosauroid species resulting from model-based cluster analysis almost matches taxonomic separation between basal hadrosauroids and hadrosaurids. Data of <i>Zhanghenglong</i> on selected measurement attributes straddle the two combinations of intervals of partitioned datasets respectively related to basal hadrosauroids and hadrosaurids. This condition is similar to mosaic evolution of morphological characters present in the specimens of the taxon. The phylogenetic analysis of Hadrosauroidea recovers a clade composed of <i>Zhanghenglong</i>, <i>Nanyangosaurus</i>, and Hadrosauridae with an unresolved polytomy.</p><p>Conclusions/Significance</p><p><i>Zhanghenglong</i> is probably a relatively derived non-hadrosaurid hadrosauroid, based on the inferences made from the morphological comparisons, quantitative evaluation of measurements, and cladistic analysis. In combination with information on the stratigraphy, phylogeny and biogeography, the material of <i>Zhanghenglong</i> provides direct evidence for the hypothesis that hadrosaurids might have originated in Asia.</p></div

Strict consensus of 405 most parsimonious trees recovered from the cladistic analysis of Hadrosauroidea, with the participation of <i>Hadrosaurus foulkii</i> (the characters associated with the laterodistal corner of the deltopectoral crest were coded as polymorphic for <i>Brachylophosaurus</i>, <i>Shantungosaurus</i>, and <i>Edmontosaurus</i>).

<p>Strict consensus of 405 most parsimonious trees recovered from the cladistic analysis of Hadrosauroidea, with the participation of <i>Hadrosaurus foulkii</i> (the characters associated with the laterodistal corner of the deltopectoral crest were coded as polymorphic for <i>Brachylophosaurus</i>, <i>Shantungosaurus</i>, and <i>Edmontosaurus</i>).</p

Comparison of the primary ridges of the tooth crowns in the dentary dental batteries of some hadrosauroid species (all dental batteries in lingual view).

<p>(A) <i>Equijubus normani</i> (IVPP V12534). (B) <i>Probactrosaurus gobiensis</i> (PIN 2232/42-1). (C) <i>Bactrosaurus johnsoni</i> (AMNH 6553). (D) <i>Parasaurolophus tubicen</i> (NMMNH P-25100). (E) <i>Edmontosaurus regalis</i> (CMN 2289). (F) <i>Brachylophosaurus canadensis</i> (CMN 8893).</p

Maxillary and dentary teeth of <i>Zhanghenglong yangchengensis</i>.

<p>(A) Teeth of the right maxilla (XMDFEC V0013, holotype) in labial view. (B) Teeth of the right dentary (XMDFEC V0013, holotype) in lingual view.</p

Simplified geographic map and detailed stratigraphic section showing the locality and horizon of <i>Zhanghenglong yangchengensis</i>.

<p>(A) Geographic map showing the down-faulted basins and depressions (dark grey areas) of southwest Henan Province, China where Upper Cretaceous continental sediments are well developed and the locality of <i>Z. yangchengensis</i> (the black five-pointed star) in the Xixia Basin. (B) Stratigraphic section of the Zhoujiagou outcrop that represents most of the middle portion (Unit 2) of the Majiacun Formation and the upper part of the lower portion (Unit 1) of the same formation, with the horizon of <i>Z. yangchengensis</i> indicated by an arrow. (C) Excavation of the Zhoujiagou locality in 2011.</p

Measurements for the anterior dorsal vertebrae (D1 and D4–D7) of <i>Zhanghenglong</i> (in mm).

<p>Measurements for the anterior dorsal vertebrae (D1 and D4–D7) of <i>Zhanghenglong</i> (in mm).</p

Dentary of <i>Zhanghenglong yangchengensis</i>.

<p>Right dentary (XMDFEC V0013, holotype) in lateral (A), medial (B), dorsal (C), and posterior (D) views.</p

Relevant data of <i>Zhanghenglong</i> and detached intervals of the datasets consisting of the values of most hadrosauroids and some basal iguanodontians on selected measurement attributes^*.

<p>*the boundary value between the two intervals was estimated to be the average value of the greatest value from the former component with low values and the least value from the latter component with high values.</p><p>C, the component resulting from MCA of the database consisting of the sample means of all measured taxa.</p