Review and prospect of coal rock hydraulic fracturing physical experimental research

Physical simulation of hydraulic fracturing is an approximate representation of fracture evolution and its dynamic process, which represents an important direction of fracture evolution research. Similarity theory is the theoretical basis of the transformation between field prototype and experimental model. Test equipment and similar materials are the material premise of physical simulation experiment. Monitoring and detection technology is the key part to evaluate the fracturing effect of hydraulic fracturing. This paper summarizes the development of similarity theory of hydraulic fracturing physical experiments, the evolution of experimental materials and devices, and the characteristics and application scope of common monitoring and detection methods from the above three aspects. The analysis shows that: the similarity criterion of hydraulic fracturing has been preliminarily formed, but it needs to be further modified according to the physical and mechanical properties of coal and rock. Numerical simulation method can be used to explore the influence degree of minor factors ignored in the derivation of similarity criterion, so as to improve the reliability and applicability of the empirical equation. In view of various physical and mechanical properties of coal and rock, many empirical formula equations of similar materials have been obtained at present, but a set of detailed experimental specification and a large number of experimental attempts are still needed to improve the repeatability of the experiments, so as to establish a more universal database of empirical equations of similar material matching. Fracturing devices are developing towards the direction of multi-field coupling with more simulation conditions, larger simulation scale and wider simulation range, and fracturing methods are gradually diversified with engineering applications. However, the accuracy of triaxial loading of fracturing devices needs to be further improved to ensure effective fracturing experiments under high stress conditions, and reduce the impact of experimental operations on the final results. Monitoring methods and detection technologies have their own advantages in evaluating the fracturing effect of hydraulic fracturing, and similar materials also have a significant impact on the effectiveness and accuracy of monitoring methods and detection technologies. How to rationally select and combine monitoring methods and detection technologies based on experiments is the key to meet the research needs of micro-structures

Increased Levels of BAFF and APRIL Related to Human Active Pulmonary Tuberculosis

BACKGROUND: Despite great efforts to improve diagnosis and treatment, tuberculosis (TB) remains a major health problem worldwide, especially in developing countries. Lack of concrete immune markers is still the obstacle to properly evaluate active TB. Therefore, identification of more validated biomarkers and phenotypic signatures is imperative. In particular, T cell-related biomarkers are more significant. METHODOLOGY: To understand the nature of CD4(+) T cell-derived signatures involved in infection and disease development, we examined and analyzed whole genome expression profiles of purified CD4(+) T cells from healthy individuals (HD), two distinct populations with latent infection (with low or high IFN-γ levels, LTB(L)/LTB(H)) and untreated TB patients. Following, we validated the expression profiles of genes in the peripheral CD4(+) T cells from each group and examined secretion levels of distinct cytokines in serum and pleural effusion. PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: Our bio-informatic analyses indicate that the two latent populations and clinical TB patients possess distinct CD4(+) T cell gene expression profiles. Furthermore, The mRNA and protein expression levels of B cell activating factor (BAFF), which belongs to the TNF family, and a proliferation-inducing ligand (APRIL) were markedly up-regulated at the disease stage. In particular, the dramatic enhancement of BAFF and APRIL in the pleural effusion of patients with tuberculosis pleurisy suggests that these proteins may present disease status. In addition, we found that the BAFF/APRIL system was closely related to the Th1 immune response. Our study delineates previously unreported roles of BAFF and APRIL in the development of tuberculosis, and these findings have implications for the diagnosis of the disease. Our study also identifies a number of transcriptional signatures in CD4(+) T cells that have the potential to be utilized as diagnostic and prognostic tools to combat the tuberculosis epidemic

Time-varying diffusion characteristics of different gases in coal particles

Based on the analytical solution of gas diffusion in spherical coal particles with a constant diffusion coefficient, a calculation method of time-varying diffusion coefficient is proposed by constructing objective function. The time-varying diffusion behavior of methane, nitrogen and carbon dioxide in the coal particles was studied. The results show that with the increase of diffusion time, the diffusion coefficients of methane, nitrogen and carbon dioxide gas in the coal particles exhibit an attenuation characteristic, eventually approaching a limit value individually. The diffusion coefficient of carbon dioxide is larger than methane, and the diffusion coefficient of nitrogen is smallest. Significant phenomenon of limited diffusion was observed for coal of strong adsorption capability. Through the analysis of the diffusion coefficient of gases at different diffusion time, a mathematical model describing the time-varying diffusion characteristic of gases is obtained. The implementation of mixed gases to replace coal bed methane has a very important practical significance. Keywords: Coal, Coalbed methane (CBM), Adsorption, Diffusion, Objective functio

Experimental study on the transporting and crushing effect of gas on coal powder during the develop stage of coal and gas outburst in roadway

Abstract In recent years, coal and gas outburst disasters are still occurring and difficult to prevent, seriously endangering the safety of coal mine production. It is well known that the transporting and crushing of outburst coal is the main pathway of energy dissipation during the coal and gas outburst process. However, a consensus regarding how much gas involves in outburst and affects energy dissipation is still lacking. Quantitative study on the gas effect on migration and fragmentation characteristics of outburst coal in restricted roadway space can improve the energy model and guide the prevention and control of gas outburst. In this paper, an improved visual coal and gas outburst dynamic effect simulation experiment system was used to conduct outburst simulation experiments at different gas pressure conditions. The results showed that the movement of outburst coal in the roadway has experienced various flow patterns. In the initial stage of the outburst, under low gas pressure condition, the motion of the outburst coal was dominated by stratified flow. However, as the gas pressure increases, the initial acceleration increases, and the outburst coal mainly move forward rapidly in the form of plug flow. The average velocity at 0.3, 0.5, and 0.8 MPa gas pressure condition were 6.75, 22.22 and 35.81 m/s, respectively. Gas also has a crushing effect on outburst coal. With increasing gas pressure, the number of coal powder particles of the same mass increased significantly, and the range of the particle size distribution of the particles decreaed, and the median particle size decreased. As the gas pressure increases, the outburst intensity gradually increases, and the total energy involved in the outburst work also increases. However, the energy dissipation pathways are different. At 0.3 MPa, the energy dissipation is dominated by crushing energy, which is about six times the ejection energy. As the gas pressure increased to 0.8 MPa, the proportion of the ejection energy gradually increases to about twice that of the crushing energy. Under the experimental conditions, 2.71–13.43% of the adsorbed gas involves in the outburst (AGIO) through rapid desorption, and the proportion increases with increasing gas pressure. This paper improves the energy model of coal and gas outburst, which is applicable to risk assessment and prevention of outburst disasters

On factors affecting coalbed gas content measurement

Coalbed gas content measurement is important for both unconventional gas recovery and mining safety. This study experimentally discussed factors affecting coalbed gas content measurement. It is found that small coal particles demonstrated high desorption rate at the early stage of desorption tests. However, the difference in methane desorption rate reduces when the coal particle size is more than 1.0 mm, indicating that a threshold of coal particle size exists in methane desorption in coal. Also, the particle size distribution tends to be stable when coal sample mass is over 15 g, stabilizing at around 1.75 mm. Therefore, the coal sample over 15 g is recommended to use in desorption tests of coalbed gas content measurement. The temperature and gas pressure can enhance the desorption rate, especially at the early stage of desorption. This temperature effect, however, mainly occurred in the first 15 min of desorption test. After 30 min, the desorption rate tends to be stable, slightly changing from around 0.35 mol/kg/min to 0.75 mol/kg/min. Due to endothermic process, absolute isothermal condition does not exist in desorption test, but this temperature variation mainly occurred in the first 15 min. The results also show incorporating the desorption data from the time of exposure to 13 min of desorption tests is essential to typically reflect methane desorption kinetics in coal. The study also shows that the measurement difference in gas content between the case with sample being air-puffed and -flushed and the case with sample exposed to the air is small. Therefore, the air-puffing and flushing during the sample collection has an insignificant effect the gas contact measurement result. This study can help to advance the understanding of impact factors on coalbed gas content measurement method

Experimental Investigation on Influence Factors of Acoustic Emission Activity in Coal Failure Process

Stress-dominated coal and gas outburst disaster has become one of the main safety problems in deep coal mines. Acoustic emission (AE) or microseismic technology has been viewed as a promising method that can effectively reflect the stress and stability status of rock mass. The AE activity precursor of coal failure is the theoretical basis of this technology. In this study, AE experiments in failure process of coal specimens with different properties and under different stress conditions were performed in laboratory to explore influence factors and their effect of AE activity, and AE activity pattern classification was proposed based on the failure type of coal. The results indicate that the AE activity of different coals under loading are associated with the failure phase, and the evolution pattern of AE activity depends on the failure type of stressed coal. Both the mechanical property and the external stress condition have an important influential effect on the failure type and AE activity pattern in coal failure process. The internal mechanical property decides the inherent tendency of stressed coals to perform brittle or ductile behavior, and the responded AE activity pattern. The contrast of fissure distribution of specimens suggested that fissure structure in coal significantly affects the fracturing mode of coal in uniaxial compression and the AE activity pattern. The external stress condition has a transition effect on AE event energy distribution and AE activity pattern. Under the effect of external stress condition, the energy distribution of AE events was transforming between relative disperse and relative concentration, the failure type and AE activity evolution pattern of coal could appear the brittle-ductile transition. Based on the view of failure type, the pattern of AE activity of coal failure can be classified into three types, i.e., ductile, brittle, and semi-brittle pattern. It is suggested that the high-level AE activity can be viewed as the precursor of brittle instability of coal, and relative quiet phenomenon of AE activity as the precursor of ductile or semi-brittle instability. The research achievement can provide a theoretical base for the prewarning criteria establishment of coal and rock dynamic disasters at depth and improve the insight of AE activity in the coal failure process

Gas Expansion Energy Model and Numerical Simulation of Outburst Coal Seam under Multifield Coupling

Due to the insufficient understanding of the outburst mechanism, the coal and gas outburst disasters in China are more serious. Gas expansion energy is the main source of energy that causes outburst. In order to explore the distribution law of gas expansion energy in outburst coal seams, a gas-solid coupling equation of outburst coal seams was established. The distribution law of coal stress field, deformation field, gas flow field, and gas expansion energy were simulated and analyzed by using COMSOL Multiphysics. The results showed that from the excavation face to the deep part of coal seam, the stress presented unloading zone, stress concentration zone, and original stress zone. The volumetric strain and permeability reached the minimum, while the gas pressure reached the maximum at the peak value of vertical stress. As time goes on, the gas pressure in the fracture near the working face gradually decreased and was less than the pressure in coal matrix. The total gas expansion energy consists of free gas and desorption gas expansion energy. Affected by the excavation, free gas expansion energy maintained a constant value in the original coal seam and gradually decreased in the area close to the working face. The expansion energy provided by desorption gas was zero in the original coal seam. And it first increased and then decreased rapidly near the working face. Compared with stress and coal seam thickness, gas pressure and initial diffusion coefficient had significant influence on gas expansion energy of coal seam. When the diffusion coefficient was greater than 1e-9 m2/s, the gas expansion energy of the coal seam near the working face was significantly higher than that of the original coal seam, which had the risk of inducing outburst

Extraction and identification of spectrum characteristics of coal and rock hydraulic fracturing and uniaxial compression signals

Abstract Microseismic (MS) events generated during coal and rock hydraulic fracturing (HF) include wet events caused by fracturing fluid injection, in addition to dry events caused by stress perturbations. The mixture of these two events makes effective fracturing MS events pickup difficult. This study is based on physical experiments of different coal and rock HF and uniaxial compression. The differences of waveform characteristic parameters of various coal and rock ruptures were analyzed using the Hilbert–Huang transform, leading to some useful conclusions. The phase characteristics of the acoustic emission (AE) energy differed significantly and responded well to the pumping pressure curve. The AE waveforms of HF exhibit similar energy and frequency distribution characteristics after Empirical mode decomposition. The main frequency bands for coal, sandstone, and shale samples are 100–300 kHz, while the mudstone sample is in the range of 50–150 kHz. The decay ratios for coal, sandstone, shale and mudstone samples are 0.78, 0.83, 0.67 and 0.85, respectively. When compared to the uniaxial compression test, the main frequency bands of HF were reduced for coal, sandstone and mudstone samples, whereas shale remained essentially unchanged. The duration, instantaneous energy, and total energy of the HF waveform are smaller than those of uniaxial compression, while the decay ratio is greater, especially for the mudstone samples. The waveform characteristic parameters, trained using the multilayer perceptron neural network, can effectively identify HF and uniaxial compression events with an accuracy of 96%