Reduced sensitivity to visual looming inflates the risk posed by speeding vehicles when children try to cross the road

Almost all locomotor animals respond to visual looming or to discrete changes in optical size. The need to detect and process looming remains critically important for humans in everyday life. Road traffic statistics confirm that children up to 15 years old are overrepresented in pedestrian casualties. We demonstrate that, for a given pedestrian crossing time, vehicles traveling faster loom less than slower vehicles, which creates a dangerous illusion in which faster vehicles may be perceived as not approaching. Our results from perceptual tests of looming thresholds show strong developmental trends in sensitivity, such that children may not be able to detect vehicles approaching at speeds in excess of 20 mph. This creates a risk of injudicious road crossing in urban settings when traffic speeds are higher than 20 mph. The risk is exacerbated because vehicles moving faster than this speed are more likely to result in pedestrian fatalities

A genomic view of the NOD-like receptor family in teleost fish: identification of a novel NLR subfamily in zebrafish

<p>Abstract</p> <p>Background</p> <p>A large multigene family of NOD-like receptor (NLR) molecules have been described in mammals and implicated in immunity and apoptosis. Little information, however, exists concerning this gene family in non-mammalian taxa. This current study, therefore, provides an in-depth investigation of this gene family in lower vertebrates including extensive phylogenetic comparison of zebrafish NLRs with orthologs in tetrapods, and analysis of their tissue-specific expression.</p> <p>Results</p> <p>Three distinct NLR subfamilies were identified by mining genome databases of various non-mammalian vertebrates; the first subfamily (NLR-A) resembles mammalian NODs, the second (NLR-B) resembles mammalian NALPs, while the third (NLR-C) appears to be unique to teleost fish. In zebrafish, NLR-A and NLR-B subfamilies contain five and six genes respectively. The third subfamily is large, containing several hundred NLR-C genes, many of which are predicted to encode a C-terminal B30.2 domain. This subfamily most likely evolved from a NOD3-like molecule. Gene predictions for zebrafish NLRs were verified using sequence derived from ESTs or direct sequencing of cDNA. Reverse-transcriptase (RT)-PCR analysis confirmed expression of representative genes from each subfamily in selected tissues.</p> <p>Conclusion</p> <p>Our findings confirm the presence of multiple NLR gene orthologs, which form a large multigene family in teleostei. Although the functional significance of the three major NLR subfamilies is unclear, we speculate that conservation and abundance of NLR molecules in all teleostei genomes, reflects an essential role in cellular control, apoptosis or immunity throughout bony fish.</p

Endoscopic Posterior Cricoid Split with Costal Cartilage Graft: A Fifteen‐Year Experience

Objective To evaluate outcomes of the endoscopic posterior cricoid split with rib graft (EPCS/RG) procedure in the treatment of subglottic stenosis (SGS), posterior glottic stenosis (PGS), and bilateral vocal fold immobility (BVFI). Study Design Retrospective chart review. Methods Chart review of all patients who underwent EPCS/RG at a single tertiary-care facility between 1999 and 2014. Patients were grouped based on the primary indication for the procedure. Decannulation was the primary endpoint. Secondary endpoints were the number of subsequent airway procedures and length of hospitalization. Results Thirty-three patients were identified; 32 had tracheotomy. Overall decannulation rate was 65.6%. Subgroup analysis demonstrated the following decannulation rates: 53.8% for SGS, 100% for PGS, and 28.6% for BVFI. Fisher exact test found a significant difference in overall decannulation rates between groups (P = 0.002). Operation-specific decannulation rates for patients who never required an open procedure were 23% for SGS, 91.6% for PGS, and 28.6% for BVFI. This difference was also statistically significant (P = 0.001). Multivariate logistic regression analysis found prematurity had a positive correlation with decannulation that approached statistical significance (P < 0.051; odds ratio 6.1; 95% confidence interval 0.99, 37.6). The percentage of patients who underwent repeat airway procedures for the groups was 61.5% for SGS, 16.6 % for PGS, and 14.3% for BVFI. The median length of hospitalization after EPCS/RG was 3 days. Conclusion This represents the largest series of patients who have undergone EPCS/RG and demonstrates that the majority of patients can be decannulated after this procedure. Patients with PGS had the highest operation-specific decannulation rates

Discriminating Formal Representations of Risk in Anterior Cingulate Cortex and Inferior Frontal Gyrus

Considerable debate persists around the definition of risk. Depending on the area of study, the concept of risk may be defined as the variance of the possible outcomes, the probability of a loss, or a combination of the loss probability and its maximum possible loss. Mounting evidence suggests the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), including the surrounding medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC), and the anterior insula/inferior frontal gyrus (IFG) are key neural regions that represent perceived risks. Yet it remains unclear which of these formalisms best accounts for the pattern of activation in brain regions representing risk, and it is also difficult to disentangle risk from value, as both contribute to perceived utility. To adjudicate among the possible definitions, we used fMRI with a novel gambling task that orthogonalized the variance, loss probability, and maximum possible loss among the risky options, while maintaining a constant expected value across all monetary gambles to isolate the impact of risk rather than value. Here we show that when expected value is controlled for ACC and IFG activation reflect variance, but neither loss probability nor maximum possible loss. Across subjects, variance-related activation within the ACC correlates indirectly with risk aversion. Our results highlight the variance of the prospective outcomes as a formal representation of risk that is reflected both in brain activity and behavior, thus suggestive of a stronger link among formal economic theories of financial risk, naturalistic risk taking, and neural representations of risk

Correction to: Psychometric evaluation of the Pinocchio Illusion Questionnaire

The authors would like to correct the following. Erratum for: Psychometric evaluation of the Pinocchio Illusion Questionnaire. Purcell JR, Chen J, Moussa-Tooks AB, Hetrick WP. Atten Percept Psychophys. 2020 Jul;82(5):2728-2737. doi: 10.3758/s13414-020-02011-4. PMID: 32185641 Free PMC article

Psychometric evaluation of the Pinocchio Illusion Questionnaire

Perceived nose elongation resulting from vibratory stimulation to the bicep brachii tendon in the absence of visual input while the finger is touching the nose, known as the Pinocchio Illusion (PI), is used to investigate how afferent signals can contribute to aberrant top-down perception of body representation. The Pinocchio Illusion Questionnaire (PIQ) was developed to empirically quantify PI perception, allowing for external validation of the PI with psychologically relevant phenomenon. The current study (n=60) examined the PIQ’s test-retest reliability, internal consistency, factor structure, and correlations with self-reported interoceptive awareness and schizotypal traits. The PIQ demonstrated strong test-retest reliability and internal validity; however, a Principal Component Analysis did not yield a latent variable structure that distinguished PI-specific perceptual aberrations from unrelated or contradictory perceptual experiences. Additionally, decreased reports of PI-specific perceptual aberrations during two elicitations of the PI on the PIQ’s open-ended free-response section (percent of sample endorsement=5% [first elicitation]; 8.3% [second elicitation]) compared to its 11-item section (endorsement of PI-specific items ranging 30–53.33% [first]; 31.67–46.67% [second]) suggest that these responses may be heavily influenced by demand characteristics rather than accurately capturing PI perception. Therefore, further psychometric development of the PIQ and standardization of procedures to elicit the illusion are recommended

How Oxygen Availability Affects the Antimicrobial Efficacy of Host Defense Peptides: Lessons Learned from Studying the Copper-Binding Peptides Piscidins 1 and 3

The development of new therapeutic options against Clostridioides difficile (C. difficile) infection is a critical public health concern, as the causative bacterium is highly resistant to multiple classes of antibiotics. Antimicrobial host-defense peptides (HDPs) are highly effective at simultaneously modulating the immune system function and directly killing bacteria through membrane disruption and oxidative damage. The copper-binding HDPs piscidin 1 and piscidin 3 have previously shown potent antimicrobial activity against a number of Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacterial species but have never been investigated in an anaerobic environment. Synergy between piscidins and metal ions increases bacterial killing aerobically. Here, we performed growth inhibition and time-kill assays against C. difficile showing that both piscidins suppress proliferation of C. difficile by killing bacterial cells. Microscopy experiments show that the peptides accumulate at sites of membrane curvature. We find that both piscidins are effective against epidemic C. difficile strains that are highly resistant to other stresses. Notably, copper does not enhance piscidin activity against C. difficile. Thus, while antimicrobial activity of piscidin peptides is conserved in aerobic and anaerobic settings, the peptide–copper interaction depends on environmental oxygen to achieve its maximum potency. The development of pharmaceuticals from HDPs such as piscidin will necessitate consideration of oxygen levels in the targeted tissue

Clinically small tonsils are typically not obstructive in children during drug-induced sleep endoscopy

OBJECTIVE: To determine whether the degree of lateral pharyngeal wall (LPW) obstruction on pediatric drug-induced sleep endoscopy (DISE) correlates with preprocedure tonsillar hypertrophy score on physical examination, and to determine if clinically small tonsils are obstructive. METHODS: Retrospective review of 154 patients who underwent DISE at a single pediatric tertiary care center over a 4-year period. Inclusion criteria were documentation of Brodsky tonsil score on preoperative physical examination. Exclusion criteria were previous tonsillectomy, adenoidectomy, or adenotonsillectomy. Lateral pharyngeal wall obstruction was graded for each patient from 0 (no obstruction) to 3 (severe obstruction) using a validated pediatric DISE scoring system known as the Chan-Parikh scoring system (C-P). Data were analyzed using multivariate linear regression controlling for age at time of DISE and presence of comorbid conditions. RESULTS: One hundred fifteen patients met criteria for analysis. Median age at DISE was 5.1 years. A moderate positive correlation was calculated between Brodsky score and DISE score, Spearman correlation coefficient 0.55, P = 50% obstruction); and six (9%) had a score of 3 (100% obstruction). CONCLUSION: There is a positive correlation between Brodsky Score and DISE LPW score. The majority of children with sleep-disordered breathing with a Brodsky score of 1 did not demonstrate LPW obstruction. These children may benefit from DISE for identification of alternative sites of upper airway obstructio