Commensal viruses of mosquitoes: Host restriction, transmission, and interaction with arboviral pathogens

Recent advances in virus detection strategies and deep sequencing technologies have enabled the identification of a multitude of new viruses that persistently infect mosquitoes but do not infect vertebrates. These are usually referred to as insect-specific viruses (ISVs). These novel viruses have generated considerable interest in their modes of transmission, persistence in mosquito populations, the mechanisms that restrict their host range to mosquitoes, and their interactions with pathogens transmissible by the same mosquito. In this article, we discuss studies in our laboratory and others that demonstrate that many ISVs are efficiently transmitted directly from the female mosquito to their progeny via infected eggs, and, moreover, that persistent infection of mosquito cell cultures or whole mosquitoes with ISVs can restrict subsequent infection, replication, and transmission of some mosquito-borne viral pathogens. This suggests that some ISVs may act as natural regulators of arboviral transmission. We also discuss viral and host factors that may be responsible for their host restriction

Neuroprotective interventions targeting detrimental host immune responses protect mice from fatal alphavirus encephalitis

Abstract: Systemic treatment with the tetracycline derivative, minocycline, attenuates neurologic deficits in animal models of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, hypoxic-ischemic brain injury, and multiple sclerosis. Inhibition of microglial activation within the CNS is 1 mechanism proposed to underlie the beneficial effects of the drug in these systems. Given the widening scope of acute viral encephalitis caused by mosquito-borne pathogens, we investigated the therapeutic effects of minocycline in a murine model of fatal alphavirus encephalomyelitis in which widespread microglial activation is known to occur. We found that minocycline conferred significant protection against both paralysis and death, even when started after viral challenge and despite having no effect on CNS virus replication or spread. Further studies demonstrated that minocycline inhibited early virus-induced microglial activation and that diminished CNS production of the inflammatory mediator, interleukin (IL)-1[beta], contributed to its protective effect. Therapeutic blockade of IL-1 receptors also conferred significant protection in our model, validating the importance of the IL-1 pathway in disease pathogenesis. We propose that interventions targeting detrimental host immune responses arising from activated microglia may be of benefit in humans with acute viral encephalitis caused by related mosquito-borne pathogens. Such treatments could conceivably act through neuroprotective rather than antiviral mechanisms to generate these clinical effects

Murray Valley encephalitis virus

Murray Valley encephalitis (MVE) is an important mosquito-borne viral disease of Australia that causes annual, sporadic cases and occasional epidemics of potentially fatal encephalitis in man. Although human cases of the disease are most commonly reported in the tropical areas of Northern Australia, ecological factors and climatic conditions occasionally result in cases appearing in more southerly areas of the country, sometimes involving large-scale outbreaks of the disease. As there are no virus-specic vaccines or treatment options currently available, this vector-borne viral disease continues to represent a major public health threat in Australia. In this chapter we discuss properties of the virus, cellular infection, clinical disease

Mechanism of West Nile Virus Neuroinvasion: A Critical Appraisal

West Nile virus (WNV) is an important emerging neurotropic virus, responsible for increasingly severe encephalitis outbreaks in humans and horses worldwide. However, the mechanism by which the virus gains entry to the brain (neuroinvasion) remains poorly understood. Hypotheses of hematogenous and transneural entry have been proposed for WNV neuroinvasion, which revolve mainly around the concepts of blood-brain barrier (BBB) disruption and retrograde axonal transport, respectively. However, an over‑representation of in vitro studies without adequate in vivo validation continues to obscure our understanding of the mechanism(s). Furthermore, WNV infection in the current rodent models does not generate a similar viremia and character of CNS infection, as seen in the common target hosts, humans and horses. These differences ultimately question the applicability of rodent models for pathogenesis investigations. Finally, the role of several barriers against CNS insults, such as the blood-cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), the CSF-brain and the blood-spinal cord barriers, remain largely unexplored, highlighting the infancy of this field. In this review, a systematic and critical appraisal of the current evidence relevant to the possible mechanism(s) of WNV neuroinvasion is conducted