Impact perforation testing of stab-resistant armour materials

This paper describes the development of a method for the investigation and comparison of materials for use in stab resistant body armour. A number of polymer composite panels of different thicknesses and construction have been tested. A dynamic test which simulated the real threat has been used and the results compared to a simpler quasi-static test that might be used in initial materials selection. The materials tested were glass-epoxy, and glass-nylon composite panels of several thicknesses between 1.8 and 5.8mm. Additional tests were also performed on similar composites containing tungsten wires. An accelerated instrumented drop-tower was used to drive a knife through composite panels and record the force resisting penetration by the knife. The final penetration of the knife through the armour into a soft backing was also measured. For comparison,a similar geometry quasi-static test was carried out on the same specimens. It was found that energy absorbtion took the form of an initial resistance to perforation and then by a resistance to further penetration. This is thought to stem from resistance to cutting ofthe panel material and gripping of the knife blade. The energy required to produce a given penetration in dynamic tests was found to be in good agreement with the penetration achieved at similar energies under quasi-static conditions. For the materials tested there was no significant difference between the penetration resistance of single or two layer systems. The penetration achieved through a panel of a given material was approximately proportional to the inverse square of the panel's thickness. The relative performance of different armour materials was assessed by plotting the energy required to penetrate a fixed distance against the areal density of the panel

The Local Dimension of Energy

In this paper, we postulate that some of the best opportunities for reducing energy demand and carbon emissions are through stronger involvement and leadership from local government. We show that local government can and do have a significant impact on both energy production and energy consumption and are important participants for the implementation of distributed generation (DG). the progress being made by successful local governments can be narrowed to three key factors. First, they have all recognised the co-benefits of a local energy strategy: a reduction in fuel poverty, increased employment, improved quality of life and mitigation of uncertain fuel supplies and prices. Secondly, successful councils have strong political leadership and employee support to implement the structural change to bring about change. Thirdly, leading councils have gained momentum by working in partnership with utilities, private companies, NGO’s, DNO’s and government departments to raise finance and garner support. While climate change remains a global issue, some of the best strategies for mitigation are implemented at the local level

Economies of Scale and Scope in Network Industries: Lessons for the UK water and sewerage sectors

Many studies of the water and sewerage industries place significant importance on the benefits of economies of scale and scope and how these relate to vertically integrated firms. We have re-examined the early literature on scale and scope economies and find that these studies do not implicitly preclude non-integrated firms from fully utilising assets for multi-product activities; they can still reap scope economies through trading in the open market. Further, we demonstrate difficulties in separating these two types of economies when assessing firm performance. Trade-offs between governance and production costs are a key issue in determining the value of vertically integrated firms that may undergo divestiture. We discuss the present policy debate regarding the optimal structure of the water and sewerage markets in England and Wales in the light of this, and recommend avenues of research that will help determine the optimal policy

Local energy policy and managing low carbon transition: the case of Leicester, UK

National and local energy policies are implemented within a complex energy landscape that makes any evaluation of their impacts far from straightforward. Drawing upon a case study of Leicester this paper argues that the ability of local authorities to deliver significant energy savings within this landscape is questionable, albeit with other additional benefits being realised (e.g. job creation, community engagement). It examines existing domestic energy demand and multiple deprivation data for Leicester and neighbouring cities and combines this with a qualitative description of the transition process. The paper identifies the need for a more systematic analysis of how national energy policy translates to the local level and concludes that it is problematic even for a leading, pro-active and innovative local authority to have a statistically meaningful energy policy. Even where energy policies are favourable, carbon reduction is less easy to realise than other – more local - co-benefits and that in the light of significant financial and co-ordination constraints more attention needs to be given to how local communities can be more effectively supported in their desire to meet (or exceed) national targets.We acknowledge the financial assistance of the EPSRC Flexnet award (EP/E0411X/1) and all of the Leicester based contributors to the project, as well as the very helpful comments of two anonymous referees; the usual disclaimers apply

Electric Power Distribution in the World: Today and Tomorrow

In light of the increasing importance of distributed energy resources (DERs) in the electricity system, there is an ongoing need to understand the current status of electric power distribution across the world. This review paper compiles key information about the distribution systems in 175 countries worldwide. The findings for each country include the number, legal structure and ownership of distribution system operators, the access to electricity they provide, distribution level voltages, electric power frequency and the significance of renewable electricity generation. This study covers 99.4% of the world’s population. As of June 2018, there are around 7600 distribution system operators in these 175 countries. After reviewing today’s distribution system status, this paper also reviews the various discussions and proposals for tomorrow’s electric power distribution. The discussion covers both system operation and market platform roles as well as data management options for DSOs in the near future

Building performance evaluation and certification in the UK: a critical review of SAP?

Improving the efficiency and performance of the UK residential sector is now necessary for meeting future energy and climate change targets. Building Performance Evaluation and Certification (BPEC) tools are vital for estimating and recommending cost effective improvements to building energy efficiency and lowering overall emissions. In the UK, building performance is estimated using the Standard Assessment Procedure (SAP) for new dwellings and Reduced SAP (RdSAP) for existing dwellings. Using a systems based approach we show there are many opportunities for improving the effectiveness of BPEC tools. In particular, if the building stock is going to meet future energy and climate change targets the system driving building energy efficiency will need to become more efficient. In order to achieve this goal, building performance standards across Europe are compared highlighting the most effective strategies where they are found. It is shown that the large variance between estimated and actual energy performance from dwellings in the UK may be preventing the adoption of bottom-up energy efficiency measures. We show that despite popular belief, SAP and RdSAP do not estimate building energy efficiency but instead attempt to estimate the cost-effective performance of a building and thus create perverse incentives that may lead to additional CO2 emissions. In this regard, the SAP standard confounds cost-effectiveness, energy efficiency and environmental performance giving an inadequate estimate of all three policy objectives. Important contributions for improving measurement, analysis, synthesis and certification of building performance characteristics are offered.Efficienc

Local Energy Policy and Managing the Low Carbon Transition: The Case of Leicester

This paper seeks to provide insights into the links between the local and national energy policy. Leicester City Council has sought to take a leadership role on implementing innovative energy policies within their city. consequently, this paper investigates the impact of national and local energy policy in Leicester. It examines the consumption of energy within city, the network of players within energy policy and two flagship aspects of the policy the district heating scheme and the use of smart metering. The paper concludes that energy policy looks very different at local and national levels

Digitalisation and New Business Models in Energy Sector

This paper reviews digitalisation in energy sector by looking at the business models of 40 interesting new start-up energy companies from around the world. These start-ups have been facilitated by the rise of distributed generation, much of it intermittent in nature. We review Artificial Intelligence (AI), Machine Learning, Deep Learning and Blockchain applications in energy sector. We discuss the rise of prosumers and small-scale renewable generation, highlighting the role of Feed-in-Tariffs (FITs), the Distribution System Platform concept and the potential for Peer-to-Peer (P2P) trading. Our aim is to help energy regulators calibrate their support new business models

Financing low-carbon generation in the UK: The hybrid RAB model

Decarbonising electricity is a critical first step in mitigating climate damage but low/zero-carbon generation is very capital intensive. Its cost depends critically on the weighted average cost of capital (WACC). Three factors combine to make a low WACC both desirable and feasible in the UK. First, the Stern Report argues for a low social discount rate (1.4% real) for investments in climate mitigation. Second, global and UK real interest rates have been falling steadily - UK gilt index-linked 20-year rates have fallen from +4% in 1995 to -2% (negative) in 2019. CCS and nuclear have long lifetimes over which to recover their capital cost, longer than commercial finance would accept without guarantees, in contrast to renewables where off-take contracts have proven sufficient. Nuclear power faces the additional investment challenge of lengthy uncertain construction. No nuclear plant has ever been built privately without substantial regulatory guarantees. The Regulated Asset Base (RAB) model can address these financing problems for long-lived low-carbon assets. The benefits of placing risk on developers to motivate cost control are small compared to the extra costs of a higher weighted average cost of capital (WACC). A hybrid RAB model (like that used for the Thames Tideway Tunnel)—with excess cost sharing and a cost cap—can reduce risk to deliver an adequately low WACC by accessing infrastructure funds that do not require extensive specialised project knowledge. If the risk of excess costs is spread over the 27 million households and other customers taking two-thirds of electricity, each would bear minimal risk and the cumulative cost would be significantly lower. The levelized cost at the WACC (3.5% real) is £53/MWh if on time and budget, which should be compared with a counterfactual in which all the risk is placed on the company requiring a contract-for-difference with a strike price of £96/MWh for the life of the project (equal to the levelized cost). The levelised cost to consumers if on time and budget would be £50/MWh and in the worst case with a 48% cost over-run, £64/MWh

A panel model for predicting the diversity of internal temperatures from English dwellings

Using panel methods, a model for predicting daily mean internal temperature demand across a heterogeneous domestic building stock is developed. The model offers an important link that connects building stock models to human behaviour. It represents the first time a panel model has been used to estimate the dynamics of internal temperature demand from the natural daily fluctuations of external temperature combined with important behavioural, socio-demographic and building efficiency variables. The model is able to predict internal temperatures across a heterogeneous building stock to within ~0.71°C at 95% confidence and explain 45% of the variance of internal temperature between dwellings. The model confirms hypothesis from sociology and psychology that habitual behaviours are important drivers of home energy consumption. In addition, the model offers the possibility to quantify take-back (direct rebound effect) owing to increased internal temperatures from the installation of energy efficiency measures. The presence of thermostats or thermostatic radiator valves (TRV) are shown to reduce average internal temperatures, however, the use of an automatic timer is statistically insignificant. The number of occupants, household income and occupant age are all important factors that explain a proportion of internal temperature demand. Households with children or retired occupants are shown to have higher average internal temperatures than households who do not. As expected, building typology, building age, roof insulation thickness, wall U-value and the proportion of double glazing all have positive and statistically significant effects on daily mean internal temperature. In summary, the model can be used as a tool to predict internal temperatures or for making statistical inferences. However, its primary contribution offers the ability to calibrate existing building stock models to account for behaviour and socio-demographic effects making it possible to back-out more accurate predictions of domestic energy demand