In situ measurements of the hydration behavior of compacted Milos (SD80) bentonite by wet-cell X-ray diffraction in an Opalinus clay pore water and a diluted cap rock brine

: Compacted bentonite is currently being considered as a suitable backfill material for sealing underground repositories for radioactive waste as part of a multi-barrier concept. Although showing favorable properties for this purpose (swelling capability, low permeability, and high adsorption capacity), the best choice of material remains unclear. The goal of this study was to examine and compare the hydration behavior of a Milos (Greek) Ca-bentonite sample (SD80) in two types of simulated ground water: (i) Opalinus clay pore water, and (ii) a diluted saline cap rock brine using a confined volume, flow-through reaction cell adapted for in situ monitoring by X-ray diffraction. Based on wet-cell X-ray diffractometry (XRD) and calculations with the software CALCMIX of the smectite d(001) reflection, it was possible to quantify the abundance of water layers (WL) in the interlayer spaces and the amount of non-interlayer water uptake during hydration using the two types of solutions. This was done by varying WL distributions to fit the CALCMIX-simulated XRD model to the observed data. Hydrating SD80 bentonite with Opalinus clay pore water resulted in the formation of a dominant mixture of 3- and 4-WLs. The preservation of ca. 10% 1-WLs and the apparent disappearance of 2-WLs in this hydrated sample are attributed to small quantities of interlayer K (ca. 8% of exchangeable cations). The SD80 bentonite of equivalent packing density that was hydrated in diluted cap rock brine also contained ca. 15% 1-WLs, associated with a slightly higher concentration of interlayer K. However, this sample showed notable suppression of WL thickness with 2- and 3-WLs dominating in the steady-state condition. This effect is to be expected for the higher salt content of the brine but the observed generation of CO2 gas in this experiment, derived from enhanced dissolution of calcite, may have contributed to the suppression of WL thickness. Based on a comparison with all published wet-cell bentonite hydration experiments, the ratio of packing density to the total layer charge of smectite is suggested as a useful proxy for predicting the relative amounts of interlayer and non-interlayer water incorporated during hydration. Such information is important for assessing the subsequent rates of chemical transport through the bentonite barrier

Thermally Induced Bentonite Alterations in the SKB ABM5 Hot Bentonite Experiment

Pilot sites are currently used to test the performance of bentonite barriers for sealing high-level radioactive waste repositories, but the degree of mineral stability under enhanced thermal conditions remains a topic of debate. This study focuses on the SKB ABM5 experiment, which ran for 5 years (2012 to 2017) and locally reached a maximum temperature of 250 °C. Five bentonites were investigated using XRD with Rietveld refinement, SEM-EDX and by measuring pH, CEC and EC. Samples extracted from bentonite blocks at 0.1, 1, 4 and 7 cm away from the heating pipe showed various stages of alteration related to the horizontal thermal gradient. Bentonites close to the contact with lower CEC values showed smectite alterations in the form of tetrahedral substitution of Si4+ by Al3+ and some octahedral metal substitutions, probably related to ferric/ferrous iron derived from corrosion of the heater during oxidative boiling, with pyrite dissolution and acidity occurring in some bentonite layers. This alteration was furthermore associated with higher amounts of hematite and minor calcite dissolution. However, as none of the bentonites showed any smectite loss and only displayed stronger alterations at the heater–bentonite contact, the sealants are considered to have remained largely intact

Bentonite Alteration in Batch Reactor Experiments with and without Organic Supplements: Implications for the Disposal of Radioactive Waste

Bentonite is currently proposed as a potential backfill material for sealing high-level radioactive waste in underground repositories due to its low hydraulic conductivity, self-sealing ability and high adsorption capability. However, saline pore waters, high temperatures and the influence of microbes may cause mineralogical changes and affect the long-term performance of the bentonite barrier system. In this study, long-term static batch experiments were carried out at 25 °C and 90 °C for one and two years using two different industrial bentonites (SD80 from Greece, B36 from Slovakia) and two types of aqueous solutions, which simulated (a) Opalinus clay pore water with a salinity of 19 g·L−1, and (b) diluted cap rock solution with a salinity of 155 g·L−1. The bentonites were prepared with and without organic substrates to study the microbial community and their potential influence on bentonite mineralogy. Smectite alteration was dominated by metal ion substitutions, changes in layer charge and delamination during water–clay interaction. The degree of smectite alteration and changes in the microbial diversity depended largely on the respective bentonite and the experimental conditions. Thus, the low charged SD80 with 17% tetrahedral charge showed nearly no structural change in either of the aqueous solutions, whereas B36 as a medium charged smectite with 56% tetrahedral charge became more beidellitic with increasing temperature when reacted in the diluted cap rock solution. Based on these experiments, the alteration of the smectite is mainly attributed to the nature of the bentonite, pore water chemistry and temperature. A significant microbial influence on the here analyzed parameters was not observed within the two years of experimentation. However, as the detected genera are known to potentially influence geochemical processes, microbial-driven alteration occurring over longer time periods cannot be ruled out if organic nutrients are available at appropriate concentrations