New distribution records of herpetofauna in Mozambique south of the Zambezi River, including additional records from Parque Nacional de Banhine

The herpetofauna of Mozambique remains poorly documented despite several recent surveys. This paper presents additional distribution records for a number of species from Mozambique, based on recent field excursions and older material at the Ditsong National Museum of Natural History. The new records suggest that a number of taxa are more widely distributed in southern Mozambique than is currently known while the additional material suggests that the taxonomy of some species requires further research.http://www.journals.co.za/ej/ejour_nfi_ditsong.htmlam2014ab201

First herpetological appraisal of the Parque Nacional de Banhine, Gaza Province, southern Mozambique

The herpetofauna of Mozambique remains poorly documented despite recent surveys. We present here the first report on the herpetofauna occurring in Parque Nacional de Banhine in Gaza Province.Four chelonian, 13 snake, one amphisbaenid, 16 lizard and 15 frog species were recorded in the park, while an additional six snake, five lizard and two frog taxa have been recorded in close proximity and probably also occur in the park. Numerous range extensions are recorded, and these are discussed in the light of our present knowledge of the distribution of herpetofauna in Mozambique.http://www.journals.co.za/ej/ejour_nfi_ditsong.htmlam2013ab201

Home range, habitat selection and activity patterns of an arid-zone population of Temminck’s ground pangolins, Smutsia temminckii

All previous behavioural studies of Temminck’s ground pangolins (Smutsia temminckii) have focused on populations in mesic regions. We examined home range size, activity periods, habitat selectivity and refuge site selection of 13 individuals over three years in the Kalahari Desert of South Africa, near the western edge of the species’ range. Kernel home ranges of adults averaged 6.5 ± 5.9 km², while juveniles had average home ranges of 6.1 ± 4.0 km². Reliable prediction of 95% of the Kernel home range required 88 ± 67.7 tracking days. No significant habitat selectivity was observed. Earthen burrows were the most frequently used refuge type. The time at which activity commenced varied seasonally as well as among individuals, with an increase in diurnal activity during winter. Young pangolins also displayed more diurnal activity compared to adults. Individuals spent 5.7 ± 2.0 hours per 24-hour cycle outside of refuges, with no significant seasonal variation. Juvenile dispersal peaked during mid-summer, with individuals travelling up to 49 km from their natal areas. We estimate a breeding density of 0.16 individuals/km2 and a total density of 0.31 individuals/km2 for our study area. Our data suggest that activity patterns, movements and refuge selection is similar across the species’ southern African range, but that densities may be higher in the Kalahari compared to populations in more mesic eastern areas.National Research Foundation (grant 71454)http://africanzoology.journals.ac.za/tm201

Sampling bias in reptile occurrence data for the Kruger National Park

To effectively conserve and manage species, it is important to (1) understand how they are spatially distributed across the globe at both broad and fine spatial resolutions and (2) elucidate the determinants of these distributions. However, information pertaining to the distributions of many species remains poor as occurrence data are often scarce or collected with varying motivations, making the resulting patterns susceptible to sampling bias. Exacerbating an already limited quantity of occurrence data with an assortment of biases hinders their effectiveness for research, thus making it important to identify and understand the biases present within species occurrence data sets. We quantitatively assessed occurrence records of 126 reptile species occurring in the Kruger National Park (KNP), South Africa, to quantify the severity of sampling bias within this data set. We collated a data set of 7118 occurrence records from museum, literature and citizen science sources and analysed these at a biologically relevant spatial resolution of 1 km × 1 km. As a result of logistical challenges associated with sampling in KNP, approximately 92% of KNP is data deficient for reptile occurrences at the 1 km × 1 km resolution. Additionally, the spatial coverage of available occurrences varied at species and family levels, and the majority of occurrence records were strongly associated with publicly accessible human infrastructure. Furthermore, we found that sampled areas within KNP were not necessarily ecologically representative of KNP as a whole, suggesting that areas of unique environmental space remain to be sampled. Our findings highlight the need for substantially greater sampling effort for reptiles across KNP and emphasise the need to carefully consider the sampling biases within existing data should these be used for conservation management decision-making. Modelling species distributions could potentially serve as a short-term solution, but a concomitant increase in surveys across the park is needed

A review of the anthropogenic threats faced by Temminck's ground pangolin, Smutsia temminckii, in southern Africa

Throughout its range, Temminck’s ground pangolin, Smutsia temminckii, is becoming increasingly threatened, predominantly as a result of anthropogenic pressures. This species is currently listed as Vulnerable in South Africa and Least Concern globally, although many assessment criteria are data deficient and thus hamper an accurate assessment of its actual status. Current knowledge of the threats faced by Temminck’s ground pangolin largely stem from a handful of ecological studies and ad hoc observations. Here we synthesize data on the known threats faced by this species in southern Africa and highlight a number of new threats not previously recognized. The main threats faced by this species include electrocution on electrified fences, the traditional medicine (muthi ) trade, habitat loss, road mortalities, capture in gin traps, and potentially poisoning. Electrocutions arguably pose the greatest threat and mortality rates may be as high as one individual per 11 km of electrified fence per year. However, the magnitude of the threat posed by the muthi trade has not yet been quantified. Most southern African countries have adequate legislation protecting this species, although implementation is often lacking and in some instances the imposed penalties are unlikely to be a deterrent. We propose mitigating actions for many of the identified threats, although further research into the efficacy of these actions, and the development of additional mitigating procedures, is required.The Mohamed bin Zayed Species Conservation Fund (project 0925713), the National Research Foundation (grant 71454), Tshwane University of Technology and University of Pretoria.http://www.sawma.co.za/am201

Sampling bias in reptile occurrence data for the Kruger National Park

To effectively conserve and manage species, it is important to (1) understand how they are spatially distributed across the globe at both broad and fine spatial resolutions and (2) elucidate the determinants of these distributions. However, information pertaining to the distributions of many species remains poor as occurrence data are often scarce or collected with varying motivations, making the resulting patterns susceptible to sampling bias. Exacerbating an already limited quantity of occurrence data with an assortment of biases hinders their effectiveness for research, thus making it important to identify and understand the biases present within species occurrence data sets. We quantitatively assessed occurrence records of 126 reptile species occurring in the Kruger National Park (KNP), South Africa, to quantify the severity of sampling bias within this data set. We collated a data set of 7118 occurrence records from museum, literature and citizen science sources and analysed these at a biologically relevant spatial resolution of 1 km × 1 km. As a result of logistical challenges associated with sampling in KNP, approximately 92% of KNP is data deficient for reptile occurrences at the 1 km × 1 km resolution. Additionally, the spatial coverage of available occurrences varied at species and family levels, and the majority of occurrence records were strongly associated with publicly accessible human infrastructure. Furthermore, we found that sampled areas within KNP were not necessarily ecologically representative of KNP as a whole, suggesting that areas of unique environmental space remain to be sampled. Our findings highlight the need for substantially greater sampling effort for reptiles across KNP and emphasise the need to carefully consider the sampling biases within existing data should these be used for conservation management decision-making. Modelling species distributions could potentially serve as a short-term solution, but a concomitant increase in surveys across the park is needed. CONSERVATION IMPLICATIONS : The sampling biases present within KNP reptile occurrence data inhibit the inference of fine-scale species distributions within and across the park, which limits the usage of these data towards meaningfully informing conservation management decisions as applicable to reptile species in KNP.The Ada and Bertie Levenstein Foundation, Merseta and the National Research Foundation.http://www.koedoe.co.za/am2020Zoology and Entomolog

Evaluating the feasibility of pangolin farming and its potential conservation impact

Pangolins are threatened by overexploitation for local and international use. They are subject to an international commercial trade ban, and are also the focus of other interventions, including attempts at commercial captive breeding. The impact that the latter could have on the conservation of wild populations deserves consideration. We critically evaluate the feasibility of commercial captive breeding (or farming) of pangolins to displace wild collection and assess its potential conservation impact on pangolin conservation using a recently published framework developed for this purpose. Of the 17 conditions posited that need to be met for supply-side interventions to displace wild collection, we find that pangolins meet a maximum of only six conditions. This analysis suggests that pangolin farming will not displace wild collection in the near future. Major barriers include an inability to breed pangolins on a commercial scale and available data suggest that it would be unprofitable. The immediate impact of pangolin farming on conservation of the species’ is unclear, but it is unlikely to benefit the conservation of wild populations. If commercial captive breeding were possible, it is uncertain how it would affect economic incentives for poaching, interactions between legal and illegal markets, stockpile policies, and how consumers and Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) practitioners would respond. To understand better the potential overall impact of pangolin farming on wild populations there is a need for further research on these uncertainties. The framework used has utility in analysing the potential impact of wildlife farming but there remains a need for a more robust approach to evaluate potential impacts of supplyside interventions.http://www.elsevier.com/locate/geccohb2020Mammal Research InstituteZoology and Entomolog

Evaluating the feasibility of pangolin farming and its potential conservation impact

Pangolins are threatened by overexploitation for local and international use. They are subject to an international commercial trade ban, and are also the focus of other interventions, including attempts at commercial captive breeding. The impact that the latter could have on the conservation of wild populations deserves consideration. We critically evaluate the feasibility of commercial captive breeding (or farming) of pangolins to displace wild collection and assess its potential conservation impact on pangolin conservation using a recently published framework developed for this purpose. Of the 17 conditions posited that need to be met for supply-side interventions to displace wild collection, we find that pangolins meet a maximum of only six conditions. This analysis suggests that pangolin farming will not displace wild collection in the near future. Major barriers include an inability to breed pangolins on a commercial scale and available data suggest that it would be unprofitable. The immediate impact of pangolin farming on conservation of the species’ is unclear, but it is unlikely to benefit the conservation of wild populations. If commercial captive breeding were possible, it is uncertain how it would affect economic incentives for poaching, interactions between legal and illegal markets, stockpile policies, and how consumers and Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) practitioners would respond. To understand better the potential overall impact of pangolin farming on wild populations there is a need for further research on these uncertainties. The framework used has utility in analysing the potential impact of wildlife farming but there remains a need for a more robust approach to evaluate potential impacts of supplyside interventions.http://www.elsevier.com/locate/geccohb2020Mammal Research InstituteZoology and Entomolog

The bii4africa dataset of faunal and floral population intactness estimates across Africa’s major land uses

Sub-Saharan Africa is under-represented in global biodiversity datasets, particularly regarding the impact of land use on species’ population abundances. Drawing on recent advances in expert elicitation to ensure data consistency, 200 experts were convened using a modified-Delphi process to estimate ‘intactness scores’: the remaining proportion of an ‘intact’ reference population of a species group in a particular land use, on a scale from 0 (no remaining individuals) to 1 (same abundance as the reference) and, in rare cases, to 2 (populations that thrive in human-modified landscapes). The resulting bii4africa dataset contains intactness scores representing terrestrial vertebrates (tetrapods: ±5,400 amphibians, reptiles, birds, mammals) and vascular plants (±45,000 forbs, graminoids, trees, shrubs) in sub-Saharan Africa across the region’s major land uses (urban, cropland, rangeland, plantation, protected, etc.) and intensities (e.g., large-scale vs smallholder cropland). This dataset was co-produced as part of the Biodiversity Intactness Index for Africa Project. Additional uses include assessing ecosystem condition; rectifying geographic/ taxonomic biases in global biodiversity indicators and maps; and informing the Red List of Ecosystems

Behavioural ecology and conservation biology of ground pangolins Smutsia temminckii in the Kalahari Desert

Ground pangolins Smutsia temminckii are inconspicuous, mainly nocturnal mammals that occur at low population densities. As a result, there is scant information available on the ecology and physiology of this species. To date the handful of studies focussing on this species were centred in the mesic eastern regions of its range, with no attention being given to ecological and biological traits in arid environments. To address these data shortfalls, a study was undertaken in the Kalahari Desert in northwestern South Africa. Very High Frequency (VHF) transmitters or Global Positioning System (GPS) loggers were fitted to 16 ground pangolins and their ecology and physiology studied over a period of three years. Throughout its range the ground pangolin is increasingly endangered, predominantly due to anthropogenic threats. Previous studies have identified threats facing this species, but very few of these studies included quantitative data as to the extent of these threats. The present study suggests that the main threats to ground pangolins in southern Africa are electrocution on electrified fences, the traditional medicine trade, habitat loss, road mortalities and capture in gin traps. Although accidental poisoning has previously been viewed as a threat, a review of the available literature suggests that this is not the case and that these views stemmed from two isolated incidents of captive animals. Electrocutions probably pose the greatest threat to ground pangolins, with mortality rates of one pangolin per 11 km of electrified fence per year recorded during this study. Home range sizes of this arid-zone population are comparable to the home range sizes recorded in mesic populations. Study animals in the Kalahari had Minimum Convex Polygon (MCP) home range values of 10.0 ± 8.9 km² SD for adults and 7.1 ± 1.1 km² SD for juveniles, in comparison to the 0.17 – 23.38 km² MCP in Zimbabwe and 1.3 – 7.9 km2 MCP in mesic north-eastern South Africa. These results are surprising as arid-zone animals usually have larger home ranges than do their mesic counterparts. It is hypothesised that this discrepancy is due to the fact that ground pangolins in the Kalahari are on average 25 – 30 % smaller than their mesic counterparts. This smaller body size means that individuals require a smaller home range to meet their dietary requirements, which could be counteracting the trend of arid-zone individuals requiring larger home ranges. This research also found ground pangolins to be more active during the day in winter and nearly entirely nocturnal during summer. These changes in photoperiodicity are likely driven by adaptations to the extreme climatic conditions present at the study site rather than predation pressure or changes in food resources, although the latter may be playing a role as well. By being diurnal in winter, individuals avoid the extremely cold night-time temperatures, thus saving energy that would otherwise be spent on maintaining their body temperature. By contrast, becoming nocturnal in summer allows them to avoid the extreme daytime temperatures, thus conserving water. The results of this study reiterate previous findings that ground pangolins are entirely myrmecophagous and highly selective of the species that they eat. Study animals were recorded feeding on only four ant and two termite species, representing 7.5 % and 50 % of the total species richness of each of these families. This is similar to previous research in mesic savannahs where five ant one termite species constituted 97 % of the ground pangolin’s diet. No seasonal differences in prey selection were observed, although the species consumed did depend on the habitats that were available to individual ground pangolins. This study is the first to investigate the core body temperature (Tb) of a free-ranging pangolin. These data indicated that Tb fluctuated cyclically between 32 – 35 °C and reflected the activity periods of the animal, peaking when the animal was active. When the individual was inactive, Tb steadily decreased, suggesting that it used daily heterothermy to cope with the low food availability in this unpredictable environment. In summary, ecological parameters between arid and mesic ground pangolin populations are similar in some respects, but divergent in others. Arid-zone populations are smaller overall and show a higher degree of diurnal activity. Despite this smaller body size, home range values appear to be similar between arid and mesic populations. Although the prey species eaten by ground pangolins in the Kalahari differ from prey species in eastern South Africa and Zimbabwe, they belonged to the same genera and were of similar morphology and ecology. The core body temperature results confirm findings from previous captive studies that pangolin body temperatures are lower than those of other eutherian mammals of a similar size. Furthermore, these data indicate that core body temperature is a lot more variable than previously believed, and thus warrants further study. Overall ground pangolin densities in the Kalahari appear to be double those in eastern South Africa and Zimbabwe, although it is unclear whether this is genuine or whether it is an artefact of individuals being easier to locate in the Kalahari. This study also confirmed that electrocutions are probably the greatest threat to this species, and new threats such as accidental capture in gin traps and road mortalities have also come to light.Dissertation (MSc)--University of Pretoria, 2013.gm2014Zoology and Entomologyunrestricte