The rural-urban fringe in the Netherlands: recent developments and future challenges

In recent decades, most rural-urban fringes in the Netherlands have seen substantial urbanisation. Urban expansions at the rural-urban fringe have formed complex hybrid landscapes consisting of residential areas, commercial zones, agricultural land, recreational and nature areas. In certain regions, urbanisation is rather compact and concentric, whereas others show dispersed and polycentric morphological patterns. Based on quantitative and qualitative spatial research, this article analyses recent urban developments and urbanisation patterns along the rural-urban fringe in the Netherlands, and identifies challenges for planning and design at national, regional and local levels. Urban compaction policy has prevented urban sprawl in the Netherlands. However, in some regions traditionally unwanted urban development patterns can be discerned. On a national level, an important question is how increasing dispersed urbanisation may affect the economic performance of cities and the efficient use of existing infrastructure. On a regional level, there is a need for urbanisation strategies that transcend municipal boundaries. On a local level, innovative urban design/re-design strategies may help improve connections between separated functions, involve local stakeholders, and upgrade the identity of places at the fringe

ERP hoch 3: Energieraumplanung entlang von ÖV-Achsen

Im Rahmen des national geförderten Forschungsprojekt „ERP_hoch3“ wird der Themenschwerpunkt Energieraumplanung in drei Fokusebenen betrachtet, untersucht und simuliert. Während „ERP“ für Energieraum-planung steht, steht die „3“ für drei verschiedene Raumbezüge – Stadtquartiere, öffentliche Verkehrsachsen und interkommunale Flächenpotenziale erneuerbarer Energien (Region). ERP_hoch3 ist ein zweijähriges Grundlagenforschungsprojekt, gefördert vom österreichischen Klimafonds. Das Forschungsteam besteht aus 14 Expertinnen und Experten der Fachbereiche für Regionalplanung und für örtliche Raumplanung (TU Wien, Department für Raumplanung) und der Institute für Städtebau und Prozess- und Partikeltechnik (TU Graz)

Institutionelle Gestaltung von energieraumplanerischen Politiken: Das Fallbeispiel der niederländischen Windkraftzonierung

Aktiv gestaltete Innovation im institutionellen Bereich gilt als eine wesentliche Voraussetzung für eine erfolgreiche Energiewende. Heutige gesellschaftliche Routinen sollen aufgebrochen und durch Prakti-ken ersetzt werden, die nachhaltiger sind und deshalb wert sind nachgeahmt und institutionalisiert zu werden. Dieser Beitrag geht der Frage nach, inwiefern Energieraumplanung zielgerichtet und bewusst neue Institutionen einführen kann und ob damit tatsächlich langfristig nachhaltigere Rahmenbedin-gungen geschaffen werden. In planungstheoretischer Literatur wird institutionelle Gestaltung als ein wichtiger Bereich der Raumplanung hervorgehoben. Damit gemeint ist das Verändern und Einführen von allgemeinen Werten und Normen – Regelungen, Praktiken und Sichtweisen –, die die Interaktion eines breiten Spektrums von Akteurinnen und Akteuren strukturieren. In diesem Beitrag wird institu-tionelle Gestaltung am Beispiel der Windkraftzonierung untersucht. Anhand des Praxisbeispiels des niederländischen Strukturplans für Onshore-Windkraftanlagen wird aufgezeigt, inwiefern die räumlich-geografische Abgrenzung von Gebieten für nachhaltige Energiegewinnung zur Entwicklung von neuen Institutionen geführt hat und welche Pfad-Abhängigkeiten dies mit sich bringt.73821

Wo, wer und wie viel? Windkraftausbau in verstädterten Regionen. Eine institutionelle Analyse über Planung und Implementation.

Abweichender Titel nach Übersetzung der Verfasserin/des VerfassersDiese Doktorarbeit hat die Wirksamkeit von raumplanerischen Ansätzen zur Steuerung des Windkraftausbaues untersucht — in verstädterten Regionen Europas und von einer institutionellen Perspektive aus betrachtet. Das Forschungslayout wurde abgeleitet von akteursorientierten Methoden der Politikfeldanalyse und beruht auf der vergleichenden Analyse von Raumplanungspolitiken. Die Analysegebiete waren Südholland (Niederlande), Niederösterreich (Österreich) und Ostflandern (Belgien). Es handelt sich um weitgehend verstädterte Regionen mit günstigen klimatischen Voraussetzungen für die Erzeugung von Windenergie. Aufgrund der geografischen Ähnlichkeiten waren die ausgewählten Regionen mit vergleichbaren Problemen konfrontiert, ihre raumplanerischen Lösungsansätze weichen aber erheblich voneinander ab. Es wurde ein konzeptioneller Rahmen entwickelt, um die vergleichende Analyse von Fallbespielen durchführen zu können. Dieser Rahmen unterscheidet zwischen vier, voneinander abhängigen, Dimensionen der Raumpolitikgestaltung und -umsetzung: „Konditionen“ beeinflussen die Strukturen von „Windenergieplanungsarenen“; Dies führt zu Akteursinteraktionen, die sowohl Raumplanungspolitiken hervorbringen, als deren Umsetzung: „Planungsansätze für Windenergie“ und deren „Implementation“. Darüber hinaus wurden Beurteilungskriterien entwickelt, um die jeweiligen Interaktionsformen in den untersuchten Planungsprozessen und die daraus entstehende, fortschreitende Windenergieentwicklung zu bewerten. Diese Kriterien begründen sich auf einige allgemeine Zielsetzungen: rechtzeitige Umsetzung von Energiezielen, ressourcenbewusster Umgang mit Land und soziale Akzeptanz von Windenergie. In den drei Fallstudien haben die gewählten Planungsansätze den Windkraftausbau eher eingeschränkt als gefördert, vor allem wenn es notwendig wurde, um nach „alternativen Standorten“ zu suchen. Die Ergebnisse unterstreichen die Bedeutung eines partizipativen Planungsverfahrens, genauer gesagt geht es um die Miteinbeziehung von direkt betroffenen AkteurInnen. Hier können Planungspraktiken institutionalisiert werden, die förderlich sind für die gegenseitige Abstimmung von kollektiven Zielsetzungen (von höheren Regierungsebenen) und den wechselnden, lokalspezifischen Werten. Das Instrument der Zonierung ist dabei ein mächtiges Werkzeug, welches nicht nur die räumlich-territoriale Verteilung von Windkraftanlagen vorschreibt, sondern sozioorganisatorische Einheiten konfiguriert, wo u. a. Windkraftentwickler, BewohnerInnen, lokale Behörden und regionale Planungsträger aufeinandertreffen.This PhD thesis had analysed the effectiveness of spatial planning approaches to the deployment of wind energy in a number of European urbanised regions and from an institutional perspective. The research design derives from actor-centred methods of policy analysis. The analysed regions were South Holland (Netherlands), Lower Austria (Austria) and East Flanders (Belgium). All three regions are characterized by a high degree of urbanisation and a climate that favours the generation of wind power. Although the selected regions faced similar problems and found themselves in comparable situations, their spatial planning approaches diverged significantly. The conceptual framework applied to the three case studies differentiates between four interdependent dimensions of wind energy policy-making and implementation: ´conditions´ affect the structure of ´wind energy planning arenas´; this leads to interactions that produce policies: ´planning approaches to wind energy´, and outcomes: ´wind energy implementation´. Furthermore, evaluative criteria were used to examine the patterns of interactions and observed outcomes. These were: timely implementation of energy targets, resource-aware treatment of land, and local acceptance of wind energy. One of the wider implications of the planning approaches in the three case studies was that they restricted, rather than promoted development when it came to searching for ´alternative locations´. Furthermore, the findings underline the importance of a participative procedure within the planning process. This process can provide the framework needed to institutionalize a trade-off between collective purposes at a higher governance level and locally changing contexts and values. Thereby, the introduction of zoned areas is a strong measure that not only determines the territorial spread of wind turbines, but also configures socio-organisational entities made up of implementation actors such as developers, local residents, and authorities.22

Wind power deployment in urbanised regions

There is a palpable tension between the planning and implementation of climate targets, for instance as regards renewable energy resources — among which wind power plays a significant role. This tension comes to the fore when assessing the effectiveness of spatial planning approaches to the deployment of wind energy. Planning approaches to wind power are evaluated in three European urbanised regions: South Holland (Netherlands), Lower Austria (Austria) and East Flanders (Belgium). Each region has adopted wind energy targets and introduced zoned areas in its regional planning agenda. The theory of ‘new institutionalism’ and the comparative case study method are the two pillars of this investigation. Zoning may be considered as a form of institutional design, for the introduction of zoned areas not only determines the territorial spread of wind turbines, but also configures socio-organisational entities and actors involved in implementation (developers, local residents, consultants, and public authorities). The comparative approach demonstrates that planning choices in the three case studies often yield to the concerns of higher governance levels, clearly prioritising energy policy goals above local, contextual values. In consequence, ‘zones for wind energy’ do not always gain public acceptance at the local level. Indeed, the foundation for locally supported wind energy zones is laid down in the planning process itself. This process has the potential to institutionalise a trade-off between collective purposes at a higher governance level and locally changing contexts and values. On the other hand, planning agents need to be more aware of path dependencies in spatial decisions concerning renewable energy. One of the wider implications of the planning approaches studied is that they restrict, rather than promote development. Thus, when zoned areas had to be redrawn, local opposition or ‘unwillingness’ seriously restricted the amount of leeway for reaching a consensus about alternative locations. The reason was that the formal planning exercise (zoning wind energy) implied more than an impartial territorial designation: it also communicated social consensus on land-use decisions of ´where wind turbines would come´ and ´where they would not´

Wind power deployment in urbanised regions : an institutional analysis of planning and Implementation

There is a palpable tension between the planning and implementation of climate targets, for instance as regards renewable energy resources — among which wind power plays a significant role. This tension comes to the fore when assessing the effectiveness of spatial planning approaches to the deployment of wind energy. Planning approaches to wind power are evaluated in three European urbanised regions: South Holland (Netherlands), Lower Austria (Austria) and East Flanders (Belgium). Each region has adopted wind energy targets and introduced zoned areas in its regional planning agenda.The theory of ‘new institutionalism’ and the comparative case study method are the two pillars of this investigation. Zoning may be considered as a form of institutional design, for the introduction of zoned areas not only determines the territorial spread of wind turbines, but also configures socio-organisational entities and actors involved in implementation (developers, local residents, consultants, and public authorities). The comparative approach demonstrates that planning choices in the three case studies often yield to the concerns of higher governance levels, clearly prioritising energy policy goals above local, contextual values. In consequence, ‘zones for wind energy’ do not always gain public acceptance at the local level. Indeed, the foundation for locally supported wind energy zones is laid down in the planning process itself. This process has the potential to institutionalise a trade-off between collective purposes at a higher governance level and locally changing contexts and values. On the other hand, planning agents need to be more aware of path dependencies in spatial decisions concerning renewable energy. One of the wider implications of the planning approaches studied is that they restrict, rather than promote development. Thus, when zoned areas had to be redrawn, local opposition or ‘unwillingness’ seriously restricted the amount of leeway for reaching a consensus about alternative locations. The reason was that the formal planning exercise (zoning wind energy) implied more than an impartial territorial designation: it also communicated social consensus on land-use decisions of ´where wind turbines would come´ and ´where they would not´.21

Correction to: Balanced renewable energy scenarios: a method for making spatial decisions despite insufficient data, illustrated by a case study of the Vorderland-Feldkirch Region, Vorarlberg, Austria

Correction In the publication of this article [1], there is an error in the Figures 4, 5 and 6 which are missing the map design and data source of the copyright owners

Balanced renewable energy scenarios: a method for making spatial decisions despite insufficient data, illustrated by a case study of the Vorderland-Feldkirch Region, Vorarlberg, Austria

Abstract Background An increasing production of renewable energy requires planning strategies that are able to coordinate the higher-level energy goals with local-level land use interests. While the spatial scope of energy objectives is usually set up on a federal state or national scale, decisions to allocate and implement renewable energy sites are often taken on a municipal scale. This leads to a lack of regional coordination, as the task to achieve a balanced regional energy demand and renewable energy production cannot be solved by individual municipalities alone and calls for cooperation on a regional level. This paper focuses on a recently applied method to support decisions that are committed to empowering the production of renewable energy on a regional scale. In addition, it reflects the generic use of this method, which should be manageable and repeatable under the conditions of an input of only a few quantitative data. At the same time, it addresses the question of how planning decisions, both in spatial and energy planning, may be empowered. Methods The research team applied a cardboard games approach that required several steps of analysis. First, energy data and spatial attributes of different renewable energy sources were collected from reference projects and the literature. The end product was a catalogue of renewable energy generators, which also included the estimated energy output (kWh/a) and land consumption (m2) per source. A measuring unit of m2/kWh/a was developed that represented an inverse value for the consumption of heat (kWh/m2/a). Second, the current and future (2030) energy demand of the Austrian region of Vorderland-Feldkirch was estimated for this the pilot study area to which the cardboard games method should be applied, which resulted in two energy demand scenarios for 2030—a “business-as-usual” and an “optimum” scenario. The two scenarios were then related to the current renewable energy goal of the federal state (Vorarlberg) in order to calculate the required share of renewable energy for both the year 2030 and the chosen pilot study area. As a third step, a scenario-building workshop was organized for regional stakeholders and experts in energy planning. About 30 people joined the workshop. There were different backgrounds among the workshop participants: local experts and mayors, researchers from the project itself, and energy and planning experts from Germany, the Netherlands, and Switzerland. The three workshop groups had to develop spatial scenarios for Vorderland-Feldkirch to reach the required share of renewable energy. And as a final step, the resulting strategies derived from the workshop scenarios were evaluated by using a GIS analysis. Results The cardboard games method produced interesting spatial strategies for achieving an equivalent between energy demand and renewable energy production. The main advantage of the method is that it produces quick results and creates awareness of the land consumption of renewable energy. Furthermore, the cardboard games method worked as a participatory approach to simulating a decision-making process in regional (energy) planning. Conclusions The estimated energy scenario (2015–2030) is based on several factors that are unfortunately greatly simplified and/or difficult to verify—where the latter is mainly caused by an almost total lack of useable data. On the other hand, the simplification represents the strength of the method bundle, as it ensures a “generic” quality as well as repeatability of the workflow of standard planning situations for many regions, which is also an important part of the research module profile. Still, an in-depth GIS pre-assessment would further enhance and refine the results