Imaging Multi-Dimensional Electrical Resistivity Structure as a Tool in Developing Enhanced Geothermal Systems (EGS)

The overall goal of this project has been to develop desktop capability for 3-D EM inversion as a complement or alternative to existing massively parallel platforms. We have been fortunate in having a uniquely productive cooperative relationship with Kyushu University (Y. Sasaki, P.I.) who supplied a base-level 3-D inversion source code for MT data over a half-space based on staggered grid finite differences. Storage efficiency was greatly increased in this algorithm by implementing a symmetric L-U parameter step solver, and by loading the parameter step matrix one frequency at a time. Rules were established for achieving sufficient jacobian accuracy versus mesh discretization, and regularization was much improved by scaling the damping terms according to influence of parameters upon the measured response. The modified program was applied to 101 five-channel MT stations taken over the Coso East Flank area supported by the DOE and the Navy. Inversion of these data on a 2 Gb desktop PC using a half-space starting model recovered the main features of the subsurface resistivity structure seen in a massively parallel inversion which used a series of stitched 2-D inversions as a starting model. In particular, a steeply west-dipping, N-S trending conductor was resolved under the central-west portion of the East Flank. It may correspond to a highly saline magamtic fluid component, residual fluid from boiling, or less likely cryptic acid sulphate alteration, all in a steep fracture mesh. This work gained student Virginia Maris the Best Student Presentation at the 2006 GRC annual meeting

Structural controls, alteration, permeability and thermal regime of Dixie Valley from new-generation MT/galvanic array profiling

State-of-the-art MT array measurements in contiguous bipole deployments across the Dixie Valley thermal area have been integrated with regional MT transect data and other evidence to address several basic geothermal goals. These include 1), resolve a fundamental structural ambiguity at the Dixie Valley thermal area (single rangefront fault versus shallower, stepped pediment; 2), delineate fault zones which have experienced fluid flux as indicated by low resistivity; 3), infer ultimate heat and fluid sources for the thermal area; and 4), from a generic technique standpoint, investigate the capability of well-sampled electrical data for resolving subsurface structure. Three dense lines cross the Senator Fumaroles area, the Cottonwood Creek and main producing area, and the low-permeability region through the section 10-15 area, and have stand-alone MT soundings appended at one or both ends for local background control. Regularized 2-D inversion implies that shallow pediment basement rocks extend for a considerable distance (1-2 km) southeastward from the topographic scarp of the Stillwater Range under all three dense profiles, but especially for the Senator Fumaroles line. This result is similar to gravity interpretations in the area, but with the intrinsic depth resolution possible from EM wave propagation. Low resistivity zones flank the interpreted main offsetting fault especially toward the north end of the field which may be due to alteration from geothermal fluid outflow and upflow. The appended MT soundings help to substantiate a deep, subvertical conductor intersecting the base of Dixie Valley from the middle crust, which appears to be a hydrothermal conduit feeding from deep crustal magmatic underplating. This may supply at least part of the high temperature fluids and explain enhanced He-3 levels in those fluids

Segmentation of plate coupling, fate of subduction fluids, and modes of arc magmatism in Cascadia, inferred from magnetotelluric resistivity

Author Posting. © American Geophysical Union, 2014. This article is posted here by permission of American Geophysical Union for personal use, not for redistribution. The definitive version was published in Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems 15 (2014): 4230–4253, doi:10.1002/2014GC005509.Five magnetotelluric (MT) profiles have been acquired across the Cascadia subduction system and transformed using 2-D and 3-D nonlinear inversion to yield electrical resistivity cross sections to depths of ∼200 km. Distinct changes in plate coupling, subduction fluid evolution, and modes of arc magmatism along the length of Cascadia are clearly expressed in the resistivity structure. Relatively high resistivities under the coasts of northern and southern Cascadia correlate with elevated degrees of inferred plate locking, and suggest fluid- and sediment-deficient conditions. In contrast, the north-central Oregon coastal structure is quite conductive from the plate interface to shallow depths offshore, correlating with poor plate locking and the possible presence of subducted sediments. Low-resistivity fluidized zones develop at slab depths of 35–40 km starting ∼100 km west of the arc on all profiles, and are interpreted to represent prograde metamorphic fluid release from the subducting slab. The fluids rise to forearc Moho levels, and sometimes shallower, as the arc is approached. The zones begin close to clusters of low-frequency earthquakes, suggesting fluid controls on the transition to steady sliding. Under the northern and southern Cascadia arc segments, low upper mantle resistivities are consistent with flux melting above the slab plus possible deep convective backarc upwelling toward the arc. In central Cascadia, extensional deformation is interpreted to segregate upper mantle melts leading to underplating and low resistivities at Moho to lower crustal levels below the arc and nearby backarc. The low- to high-temperature mantle wedge transition lies slightly trenchward of the arc.Phil Wannamaker and Virginie Maris gratefully acknowledge funding by the U.S. National Science Foundation under grants EAR08–43725 and EAR08–38043 through the Earthscope and Geophysics programs. The 2D inversion capability received development support under U.S. Department of Energy contract DE-PS36-04GO94001. Rob Evans was supported through Earthscope grant EAR08–44041 and Shane McGary through a National Defense Science and Engineering Graduate (NDSEG) fellowship. Fieldwork in Canada was made possible by an NSERC Discovery Grant and a Canadian Foundation for Innovation award to Martyn Unsworth.2015-05-1

Magnetotelluric observations across the Juan de Fuca subduction system in the EMSLAB project

A magnetotelluric (MT)transect has been obtained near latitude 45øN from the active Juan de Fuca Spreading center, across the subduction zone and Cascades volcanic arc, and into the back arc Deschutes Basin region. This paper presents the MT data set and describes its major characteristics as they pertain to the resistivity of the subduction system. In addition, we discuss the measurement and processing procedures employed as well as important concerns in data interpretation. Broadband audiomagnetotelluric (AMT)/MT soundings( approx. 0.01-500 s period) were collected on land with considerable redundancy in site location, and from which 39 sites were selected which constrain upper crustal heterogeneity but sense also into the upper mantle. Fifteen long-period MT recordings (about 50-10,000 s) on land confirm the broadband responses in their common period range and extend the depths of exploration to hundreds of kilometers. On the Juan de Fuca plate offshore, 33 out of 39 sea floor instruments at 19 locations gave good results. Of these locations, five magnetotelluric soundings plus two additional geomagnetic variation sites, covering the period range 200-10^(5) s approximately, constitute the ocean bottom segment of our profile. The feature of the land observations which probably relates most closely to the subduction process is a peak in the impedance phase of the transverse magnetic mode around 30-50 s period. This phase anomaly, with a corresponding inflection in the apparent resistivity, is continuous eastward from the seacoast and ends abruptly at the High Cascades. It signifies an electrically conductive layer in otherwise resistive lower crust or upper mantle, with the layer conductance decreasing eastward from the coast to a minimum under the Coast Range but increasing suddenly to the east of the central Willamette Basin. The higher conductance to the east is corroborated by the vertical magnetic field transfer function whose real component shows negative values in the period range 100-1000 s over the same distance. The transverse electric mode apparent resistivity and phase on the land display a variety of three-dimensional effects which make their interpretation difficult. Conversely, both modes of the ocean floor soundings exhibit a smooth progression laterally from the coastal area to the spreading ridge, indicating that the measurements here are reflecting primarily the large-scale tectonic structures of interest and are little disturbed by small near-surface inhomogeneities. The impedance data near the ridge are strongly suggestive of a low-resistivity asthenosphere beneath resistive Juan de Fuca plate lithosphere. Approaching the coastline to the east, both impedance and vertical magnetic field responses appear increasingly affected by a thick wedge of deposited and accreted sediments and by the thinning of the seawater

Tensor controlled-source audiomagnetotelluric survey over the Sulphur Springs thermal area, Valles Caldera

The extensive tensor CSAMT survey of the Sulphur Springs geothermal area, Valles Caldera, New Mexico, consists of 45 high-quality soundings acquired in continuous-profiling mode and has been funded in support of CSDP drillholes VC-2A and VC-2B. Two independent transmitter bipoles were energized for tensor measurements using a 30 KW generator placed approximately 13 km south of the VC-2B wellhead. These current bipoles gave source fields over the receiver sites which were substantially independent in polarization and provided well-resolved tensor elements. The surroundings in the Sulphur Springs area were arranged in four profiles to cross major structural features. At each receiver, two orthogonal electric and three orthogonal magnetic field components were acquired in accordance with tensor principles. Derivation of model resistivity cross sections from our data and their correlation with structure and geochemistry are principal components of the OBES award. However, Sulphur Springs also can serve as a natural testbed of traditional assumptions and methods of CSAMT with quantification through rigorous model analysis. Issues here include stability and accuracy of scalar versus tensor estimates, theoretical versus observed field patterns over the survey area, and controls on near-field effects using CSAMT and natural field data both inside and outside the caldera

MT3D: a 3 dimensional magnetotelluric modeling program (user's guide and documentation for Rev. 1)

MT3D.REV1 is a non-interactive computer program written in FORTRAN to do 3-dimensional magnetotelluric modeling. A 3-D volume integral equation has been adapted to simulate the MT response of a 3D body in the earth. An integro-difference scheme has been incorporated to increase the accuracy. This is a user's guide for MT3D.REV1 on the University of Utah Research Institute's (UURI) PRIME 400 computer operating under PRIMOS IV, Rev. 17

Geothermal Geophysical Research in Electrical Methods at UURI

The principal objective of electrical geophysical research at UURI has been to provide reliable exploration and reservoir assessment tools for the shallowest to the deepest levels of interest in geothermal fields. Three diverse methods are being considered currently: magnetotellurics (MT, and CSAMT), self-potential, and borehole resistivity. Primary shortcomings in the methods addressed have included a lack of proper interpretation tools to treat the effects of the inhomogeneous structures often encountered in geothermal systems, a lack of field data of sufficient accuracy and quantity to provide well-focused models of subsurface resistivity structure, and a poor understanding of the relation of resistivity to geothermal systems and physicochemical conditions in the earth generally. In MT, for example, interpretation research has focused successfully on the applicability of 2-D models in 3-D areas which show a preferred structural grain. Leading computer algorithms for 2-D and 3-D simulation have resulted and are combined with modern methods of regularized inversion. However, 3-D data coverage and interpretation is seen as a high priority. High data quality in our own research surveys has been assured by implementing a fully remote reference with digital FM telemetry and real-time processing with data coherence sorting. A detailed MT profile across Long Valley has mapped a caldera-wide altered tuff unit serving as the primary hydrothermal aquifer, and identified a low-resistivity body in the middle crust under the west moat which corresponds closely with teleseismic delay and low density models. In the CSAMT method, our extensive tensor survey over the Sulphur Springs geothermal system provides valuable structural information on this important thermal regime and allows a fundamental analysis of the CSAMT method in heterogeneous areas. The self-potential (SP) method is promoted as an early-stage, cost-effective, exploration technique for covered hydrothermal resources, of low to high temperature, which has little or no adverse environmental impact and yields specific targets for temperature gradient and fluid chemistry testing. Substantial progress has been made in characterizing SP responses for several known, covered geothermal systems in the Basin and Range and southern Rio Grande Rift, and at identifying likely, causative source areas of thermal fluids. (Quantifying buried SP sources requires detailed knowledge of the resistivity structure, obtainable through DC or CSAMT surveys with 2-D or 3-D modeling.) Borehole resistivity (BHR) methods may help define hot and permeable zones in geothermal systems, trace the flow of cooler injected fluids and determine the degree of-water saturation in vapor dominated systems. At UURI, we develop methods to perform field surveys and to model and interpret various borehole-to-borehole, borehole-to-surface and surface-to-borehole arrays. The status of our BHR research may be summarized as follows: (1) forward modeling algorithms have been developed and published to evaluate numerous resistivity methods and to examine the effects of well-casing and noise; (2) two inverse two-dimensional algorithms have been devised and successfully applied to simulated field data; (3) a patented, multi-array resistivity system has been designed and is under construction; and (4) we are seeking appropriate wells in geothermal and other areas in which to test the methods

3D Magnetotelluric characterization of the COSO Geothermal Field

Knowledge of the subsurface electrical resistivity/conductivity can contribute to a better understanding of complex hydrothermal systems, typified by Coso geothermal field, through mapping the geometry (bounds and controlling structures) over existing production. Three-dimensional magnetotelluric (MT) inversion is now an emerging technology for characterizing the resistivity structures of complex geothermal systems. The method appears to hold great promise, but histories exploiting truly 3D inversion that demonstrate the advantages that can be gained by acquiring and analyzing MT data in three dimensions are still few in number. This project will address said issue, by applying 3D MT forward modeling and inversion to a MT data set acquired over the Coso geothermal field. The goal of the project is to provide the capability to image large geothermal reservoirs in a single self-consistent model. Initial analysis of the Coso MT data has been carried out using 2D MT imaging technology to construct an initial 3D resistivity model from a series of 2D resistivity images obtained using the inline electric field measurements (Zxy impedance elements) along different measurement transects. This model will be subsequently refined through a 3D inversion process.The initial 3D resisitivity model clearly shows the controlling geological structures possibly influencing well production at Coso. The field data however, also show clear three dimensionality below 1 Hz, demonstrating the limitations of 2D resistivity imaging. The 3D MT predicted data arising from this starting model show good correspondence in dominant components of the impedance tensor (Zxy and Zyx) above 1Hz. Below 1 Hz there is significant differences between the field data and the 2D model data

3D Magnetotelluic characterization of the Coso Geothermal Field

Electrical resistivity may contribute to progress in understanding geothermal systems by imaging the geometry, bounds and controlling structures in existing production, and thereby perhaps suggesting new areas for field expansion. To these ends, a dense grid of magnetotelluric (MT) stations plus a single line of contiguous bipole array profiling has been acquired over the east flank of the Coso geothermal system. Acquiring good quality MT data in producing geothermal systems is a challenge due to production related electromagnetic (EM) noise and, in the case of Coso, due to proximity of a regional DC intertie power transmission line. To achieve good results, a remote reference completely outside the influence of the dominant source of EM noise must be established. Experimental results so far indicate that emplacing a reference site in Amargosa Valley, NV, 65 miles from the DC intertie, is still insufficient for noise cancellation much of the time. Even though the DC line EM fields are planar at this distance, they remain coherent with the nonplanar fields in the Coso area hence remote referencing produces incorrect responses. We have successfully unwrapped and applied MT times series from the permanent observatory at Parkfield, CA, and these appear adequate to suppress the interference of the cultural EM noise. The efficacy of this observatory is confirmed by comparison to stations taken using an ultra-distant reference site east of Socorro, NM. Operation of the latter reference was successful by using fast ftp internet communication between Coso Junction and the New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology, using the University of Utah site as intermediary, and allowed referencing within a few hours of data downloading at Coso. A grid of 102 MT stations was acquired over the Coso geothermal area in 2003 and an additional 23 stations were acquired to augment coverage in the southern flank of the first survey area in 2005. These data have been inverted to a fully three-dimensional conductivity model. Initial analysis of the Coso MT data was carried out using 2D MT imaging. An initial 3D conductivity model was constructed from a series of 2D resistivity images obtained using the inline electric field measurements (Zyx impedance elements) along several measurement transects. This model was then refined through a 3D inversion process. This model shows the controlling geological structures possibly influencing well production at Coso and correlations with mapped surface features such as faults and regional geoelectric strike. The 3D model also illustrates the refinement in positioning of conductivity contacts when compared to isolated 2D inversion transects. The conductivity model has also been correlated with microearthquake locations, well fluid production intervals and most importantly with an acoustic and shear velocity model derived by Wu and Lees (1999). This later correlation shows the near-vertical high conductivity structure on the eastern flank of the producing field is also a zone of increased acoustic velocity and increased Vp/Vs ratio bounded by mapped fault traces. South of the Devil's Kitchen is an area of high geothermal well density, where highly conductive near surface material is interpreted as a clay cap alteration zone manifested from the subsurface geothermal fluids and related geochemistry. Beneath the clay cap, however, the conductivity is nondescript, whereas the Vp/Vs ratio is enhanced over the production intervals. It is recommended that more MT data sites be acquired to the southwest of the Devil's Kitchen area to better refine the conductivity model in that area