Managing Environmental and Economic Performance: a Review of Theory and Practice on Performance Measurement

As businesses struggle to maintain sustainability, a great deal of interest has focused on the issues of performance measurement systems. This paper provides a literature review on the evolution of performance measurement systems, from the traditional performance measures to the sustainable balanced scorecard. More importantly, this paper highlights the vital role of sustainable balanced scorecard as a tool that manages both economic and environmental performance. Majority of the existing sustainable balanced scorecard studies were found to be of normative nature giving limited information on how the integration process between economic and environmental dimensions is being carried out via balanced scorecard. Future research is needed to enhance the understanding of the role of the sustainable balanced scorecard as an important tool in the management of economic and environmental performance in the organization

Investigation of Dislocations in GaAs Using Cathodoluminescence in the Scanning Electron Microscope

Electrically active dislocations in Si-doped {100} GaAs substrates were observed using the cathodoluminescence (CL) technique in the scanning electron microscope (SEM). CL contrast profiles were experimentally obtained from the dislocations at different beam energies. Based on the CL model for localized defects in semiconductors developed earlier by Pey, the depths of the dislocations were found by locating the beam energy at which maximum CL contrast occurred. A preferential etching technique for {100} GaAs was employed to reveal the dislocations and to measure their depths. The etched depths obtained were compared to the predicted results from the theoretical model developed. The discrepancies in the results were attributed to a Cottrell atmosphere of point defects around the dislocation core

Cathodoluminescence Contrast of Localized Defects Part II. Defect Investigation

Cathodoluminescence contrast from defects with different geometrical and electronic properties have been studied using the numerical model developed in Part I. The contrast of a localized subsurface defect exhibits a maxima at a specific beam energy Emax which corresponds to the depth of the defect. The contrast of a dis-location which intersects the top surface perpendicularly is a decreasing function of beam energy. The differences in the image profiles of the two different kinds of defects allow the two types of imperfections to be distinguished. In addition, the resolution of a subsurface defect at beam energies lower than Emax is only a function of defect size and is insensitive to the defect strength. The defect depth, size and strength can therefore be extracted sequentially. The extension of the model to the investigation of complex or multiple defects such as dot and halo contrast is also illustrated

Cathodoluminescence Contrast of Localized Defects Part I. Numerical Model for Simulation

A three-dimensional model has been developed for cathodoluminescence contrast of localized defects in semiconductors. The numerical model incorporates electron-solid interaction effects, charge transport phenomena and optical losses. Electron-solid interaction is modelled by a Monte Carlo method. Three-dimensional continuity equation and derivative boundary conditions are discretized by a central-difference quotients scheme. Localized defects are represented by regions of enhanced non-radiative recombination. The discretized linear difference equations of the boundary value problem are solved by the successive-over-relaxation method. A method for avoiding the divergence problem during the successive-over-relaxation calculation is illustrated. The solutions of the model are compared with the analytical results of several established models

A Simulation Model for Electron Irradiation Induced Specimen Charging in a Scanning Electron Microscope

A numerical model has been formulated to simulate the dynamics of specimen charging in a scanning electron microscope. In this model, the electric field due to imposed boundary conditions and fixed charges is solved by the finite element method. The empirical electron yield data are stored in Universal Yield Curves (UYC) . These UYCs control the generation of secondary and backscattered electrons from various materials. The electrons emitted from electron-solid interactions are tracked using a leapfrog integration scheme. Excess charges generated on the surface of electrically floating solids are assigned to numerical grids using a linear charge redistribution scheme. The validity of the simulation model was verified by measurements in a special setup which consisted of several isolated electrodes in the SEM chamber. Excess currents generated inside each electrode due to electron irradiation were measured simultaneously. Measurements and simulation results are in broad agreement and show that electrically floating electrodes, not directly irradiated by the primary beam, can charge-up if they are irradiated by secondary electrons and backscattered electrons emitted from a nearby electrode. The polarity of charge generation on the electrically floating solid depends on its own material property, and also strongly on the potential distribution in the space surrounding the floating electrode

Effects of local hypothermia-rewarming on physiology, metabolism and inflammation of acutely injured human spinal cord.

In five patients with acute, severe thoracic traumatic spinal cord injuries (TSCIs), American spinal injuries association Impairment Scale (AIS) grades A-C, we induced cord hypothermia (33 °C) then rewarming (37 °C). A pressure probe and a microdialysis catheter were placed intradurally at the injury site to monitor intraspinal pressure (ISP), spinal cord perfusion pressure (SCPP), tissue metabolism and inflammation. Cord hypothermia-rewarming, applied to awake patients, did not cause discomfort or neurological deterioration. Cooling did not affect cord physiology (ISP, SCPP), but markedly altered cord metabolism (increased glucose, lactate, lactate/pyruvate ratio (LPR), glutamate; decreased glycerol) and markedly reduced cord inflammation (reduced IL1β, IL8, MCP, MIP1α, MIP1β). Compared with pre-cooling baseline, rewarming was associated with significantly worse cord physiology (increased ICP, decreased SCPP), cord metabolism (increased lactate, LPR; decreased glucose, glycerol) and cord inflammation (increased IL1β, IL8, IL4, IL10, MCP, MIP1α). The study was terminated because three patients developed delayed wound infections. At 18-months, two patients improved and three stayed the same. We conclude that, after TSCI, hypothermia is potentially beneficial by reducing cord inflammation, though after rewarming these benefits are lost due to increases in cord swelling, ischemia and inflammation. We thus urge caution when using hypothermia-rewarming therapeutically in TSCI