88 research outputs found
CORPORATE EFFECTS OF THE DANOSA CASE: IS THE TERMINATION OF MEMBERSHIP OF THE BOARD OF DIRECTORS ALLOWED IN THE CASE OF A PREGNANT BOARD MEMBER?
The Court of Justice of the European Union (Second Chamber)
on 11 November 2010 pronounced a judgment in the proceedings
between Ms Dita Danosa and LKB Lizings SIA, a limited liability
company, concerning the decision of the LKB general meeting of
shareholders to remove Ms Danosa from her post as a member of the
company’s board of directors during her pregnancy. The Court’s ruling could have signifi cant repercussions on the appointment to and termination of the membership of boards of directors of capital companies in Europe. The authors analyse the corporate effects of the judgment in various countries from the point of view of the principles of company law and emphasise the difference in the contractual and corporate relationships which exist between a company and members of the board of directors. When analysing the ruling of the Court, the authors also point out the differences between public limited companies (both dual and single-board systems) and limited liability companies in terms of the position of members of the board of directors with regard to the termination of membership of the board
Pravo poslovnog nastana i korporativna mobilnost - pregled ključnih pitanja
The paper outlines open issues concerning corporate mobility from the position of both private international law rules and the relevant Community law rules. For the latter, the most important is the fundamental freedom of Community law, i.e. the freedom of establishment. It is the authors’ opinion that for the complete attainment of freedom of establishment it is necessary not only to enable companies to undertake their business activities wherever they want, but also to enable them to transfer their company seat between Member States. That is if such company seat transfer corresponds to company’s business interests and does not lead to abuse of Community given rights. Regardless of diverse positions concerning the actual state of freedom of establishment, that is whether freedom of establishment already fully enables companies to transfer their seat between Member States or not, in order to ensure legal certainty it would be very useful to provide a specific Community level legal instrument that would enable cross-border seat transfer between Member States in a uniform manner. To that end it would be appropriate to continue work on the abandoned 14th Company Law Directive on the Transfer of the Registered Office or De Facto Head Office of a Company from one Member State to Another.U radu se daju temeljne naznake otvorenih pitanja mobilnosti trgovačkih društava, kako s aspekta pravila međunarodnog privatnog prava, a tako i uvažavajući pravila prava EU. Za potonje je najvažnije pravo na ostvarivanje poslovnog nastana, kao dio primarnog prava EU. Mišljenje je autora da je za puno ostvarivanje prava poslovnog nastana prijeko potrebno da društva mogu ne samo obavljati svoju djelatnost gdje god žele, nego i promijenjati svoje sjedište , ako to odgovara potrebama njihovoga poslovanja, naravno pod uvjetom da to znači korištenje sloboda ustanovljenih pravom EU, a ne da znači zlouporabu tih sloboda. Ma kakav god stav da se zauzme o aktualnom stanju prava EU po tome pitanju, odnosno da li ono omogućava punu realizaciju prava poslovnog nastana ili ne, čini se da bi bilo vrlo korisno radi pravne sigurnosti da se donese poseban pravni instrument, koji bi uredio mogućnost promjene sjedišta društva iz jedne države članice u drugu. U tome bi smislu bilo potrebno nastaviti prekinuti rad na 14. direktivi prava društava o prijenosu registriranoga sjedišta
Rechtsformen der juristichen Personen für Ausübung der Tätigkeiten – Vorassetzungen und Folgen
Pravni subjekti načelno slobodno određuju kojim će se djelatnostima baviti i u kojem će pravnom obliku to činiti. Činjenica je da opredjeljenje za neku djelatnost ponekad silom propisa određuje pravni oblik, dok ima slučajeva da se pravni oblik može slobodno odabrati. Prema pozitivnim propisima, posljedica odabira pravnog oblika obavljanja djelatnosti jest i primjena određenih pravnih pravila, jer hrvatsko pravo uz pravni oblik i djelatnost koja se u tom pravnom obliku obavlja vezuje određenje pojmova trgovca i trgovačkog ugovora.
U radu se raspravlja o mogućim podjelama djelatnosti i pravnim posljedicama koje iz toga proizlaze. Daje se kratak prikaz pravnih oblika pravnih osoba u kojima se djelatnosti mogu obavljati. Prikazuju se odredbe općih propisa te pojedinih posebnih propisa koji uređuju pojedine djelatnosti. Posebno se analiziraju pravila o ustanovama, njihove vrste i ključne razlike prema drugim pravnim osobama, a osobito trgovačkim društvima.
Radom se pokušava odgovoriti na pitanje jesu li važeća razgraničenja glede vrste djelatnosti, načina i opsega obavljanja djelatnosti te pravnih oblika u kojima se one mogu obavljati primjerena ili (više) ne odgovaraju potrebama suvremene poslovne prakse. Na temelju analize sadašnjeg stanja, daju se prijedlozi kako bi se ono moglo poboljšati sa svrhom da uređenje bude jasno, razumljivo, dosljedno i sustavno.It is in principle an autonomous decision of every person which activities to pursue and in what legal forms. However, in some cases the law prescribes that particular activities may be pursued only in a special form. That relates especially to those activities which are considered of special importance to the society (e.g. education, health services, social care services, cultural activities etc.). The Croatian legal system provides for various forms of legal persons in which an activity may be pursued, but the most important are company and institute. The paper examines the current regulation on links between the type of the activity and legal form in which that activity may or must be pursued and which are the consequences thereto. Those notably refer to the notion of merchant and commercial contract, since they are the key elements in establishing which rules shall apply to the contract involving the legal person, in this case the company and the institute. Generally speaking, it may be stated that the analysis of various general and special laws regulating particular activities shows that there are no general principles on which the current regulation of those activities is based. To the contrary, one may conclude that it is partly a consequence of the non-coordinated legislative process and partly a result of the lack of clear standpoint on which goals are to be achieved in that regulation. The author advocates a thorough reconsideration of the existing legal persons and activities which they may pursue, and consequently proposes the introduction of new rules that would reflect the business reality and market relations more precisely.Rechtssubjekte können grundsätzlich frei bestimmen, welchen Tätigkeiten sie nachgehen und in welcher Rechtsform sie dies tun wollen. Es ist allerdings eine Tatsache, dass durch die Wahl einer bestimmten Tätigkeit manchmal auf Grund zwingender Vorschriften auch die Rechtsform festgelegt ist, während in anderen Fällen die Rechtsform frei gewählt werden kann. Nach den positiven Vorschriften gehört zu den Folgen der Wahl einer Rechtsform zur Ausübung einer Tätigkeit auch die Anwendung bestimmter rechtlicher Regeln, da das kroatische Recht die Bestimmung der Begriffe des Kaufmanns und des Handelsvertrags an die Rechtsform und die in dieser Rechtsform ausgeübte Tätigkeit bindet.
In der Arbeit werden die möglichen Einteilungen der Tätigkeiten und die sich daraus ergebenden Rechtsfolgen erörtert. Die Rechtsformen juristischer Personen, die Tätigkeiten ausüben können, werden kurz dargestellt. Ebenfalls werden die Bestimmungen der allgemeinen Vorschriften und einzelner Sondervorschriften zur Regelung einzelner Tätigkeiten vorgestellt. Insbesondere werden die Regeln zu Anstalten, verschiedenen Anstaltsarten und deren wesentliche Unterschiedsmerkmale gegenüber anderen juristischen Personen, vor allem den Handelsgesellschaften, analysiert.
Die Arbeit versucht auf die Frage zu antworten, ob die geltenden Abgrenzungen nach Tätigkeiten, Art und Weise sowie Umfang der Ausübung der Tätigkeit und nach den Rechtsformen, in denen sie ausgeübt werden kann, den Bedürfnissen der modernen Geschäftspraktiken noch angemessen sind oder ihnen nicht (mehr) entsprechen. Gründend auf einer Analyse des gegenwärtigen Zustands, werden Vorschläge zu seiner Verbesserung im Sinne einer klaren, verständlichen, konsequenten und systematischen Regelung unterbreitet
Reflections on the Supervisory Board of a Limited Company
Iako se o nadzornom odboru u dioničkom društvu puno pisalo, neka su pitanja i dalje otvorena u praksi, a propisi se tumače pogrešno, čime se čak narušavaju i temeljna načela upravljanja dioničkim društvom. Rad se bavi općenito temom članstva u nadzornom odboru, a napose odvajanjem funkcije vođenja poslova društva od funkcije nadzora nad vođenjem poslova, pitanjem zastupljenosti spolova u članstvu nadzornih odbora i nezavisnošću članova nadzornog odbora. Odvajanje vođenja poslova od nadzora nad vođenjem poslova društva ključni je element kojim se osigurava nezavisnost članova nadzornog odbora.There are two systems of management of public limited liability companies. In both systems, a company is required to have a general assembly as an obligatory body. Besides that, a company managed by a one-tier system must have a management board and executive directors. In a two-tier system, obligatory corporate bodies are the supervisory board and the management board. That system is characterized by a lack of hierarchical relations among the corporate bodies; rather, they have different functional responsibilities. One of the key points in achieving the necessary division between the management of the company and supervision of the management is to have a strict separation of the membership of both the supervisory board and management board, on the one hand, and between the respective powers of those corporate bodies on the other hand. That is at the same time an essential element which has to be fulfilled in order to ensure independence of the supervisory board’s members. The paper includes an analysis of the legal framework and case-law, and criticises the practice of the courts in respect of that issue. In respect of the membership of the supervisory board, a reference is made to the newly adopted Directive on gender balance on corporate boards. The author praises the adoption of the Directive as a necessary means to achieve adequate representation of the underrepresented gender in the management of companies
Pravo na ustavnopravnu zaštitu trgovačkih društava i drugih pravnih osoba čiji je član Republika Hrvatska ili jedinica lokalne, odnosno područne (regionalne) samouprave
U svojim odlukama Ustavni sud Republike Hrvatske dosljedno zauzima stajalište da pravo na podnošenje ustavne tužbe nemaju trgovačka društva i druge pravne osobe čiji je osnivač, odnosno član, država ili jedinica lokalne, odnosno područne (regionalne) samouprave, i koje su sa svojim osnivačem usko organizacijski, funkcionalno i financijski povezane u obavljanju svoje djelatnosti. To je posljedica okolnosti da ni Republika Hrvatska ni jedinice lokalne, odnosno područne (regionalne) samouprave nisu u pravilu ovlaštene podnijeti ustavnu tužbu. U članku se raspravlja o tom beziznimnom stajalištu te se upozorava na moguće posljedice koje iz njega proizlaze. Iznosi se mišljenje da bi analiza Ustavnog suda o pravu na podnošenje ustavne tužbe tih osoba trebala uzeti u obzir prije svega mogućnost da ne postoji uvijek uska organizaciona, funkcionalna i financijska povezanost pravnih osoba sa svojim osnivačem. Pri tome se polazi od općih pravila o pravu pravnih osoba na zaštitu svojih prava. Osobiti naglasak daje se analizi učinaka važećih stajališta Ustavnog suda na statusnopravni i obveznopravni položaj tih pravnih osoba
Uvođenje tehnika zasnovanih na modelu u razvoj aplikacija za ugradbene sustave s vremenskim ograničenjima
This paper investigates the feasibility of integrating legacy software processes and tools into the paradigm of model-based development of industrial real-time embedded systems. Research has been conducted on the example of using legacy assembly code for automatic code generation scheme inside MATLAB/Simulink environment. A sample Simulink model has been presented, code has been generated from it and its correctness has been validated by back-to-back comparison with the simulation results.Ovaj rad ispituje mogućnost integriranja naslije.enih procesa i alata za razvoj programske podrške namijenjene industrijskim ugradbenim računalnim sustavima s nametnutim vremenskim ograničenjima u paradigmu razvoja zasnovanog na modelu. Istraživanje je provedeno na primjeru korištenja naslijeđenog asemblerskog programskog koda pri automatskoj generaciji izvršnog koda unutar MATLAB/Simulink okruženja. Prikazan je primjer Simulink modela iz kojega je generiran kod čija je ispravnost utvrđena usporedbom s rezultatima simulacije
PAYMENT OF THE CAPITAL CONTRIBUTION OF A COMPANY LIMITED BY SHARES IN A CRYPTOCURRENCY
The paper examines whether cryptocurrencies, such as Bitcoin, may be contributed to the share capital of a company limited by shares. The issue is discussed from the point of view of Swiss and Croatian law. In Switzerland, it is an already established practice that cryptocurrencies are accepted as a contribution in kind. On the other hand, in Croatian practice, there have been no registered cases of such attempts. The paper therefore analyses whether such contributions would even be possible under the current regulatory framework and, irrespective of the answer, if some legislative changes would be necessary and/or beneficial
RESPONSABILITA\u27 DEI MEMBRI DEGLI ORGANI SOCIETARI IN GRUPPI DI SOCIETA\u27 DI FATTO
U radu se razmatraju najvažnija pitanja odgovornosti članova organa društava koja se nalaze u sastavu faktičnog koncerna. Odgovornost članova organa društava u faktičnom koncernu ultimativno ovisi o opsegu njihovih ovlasti. Da bi se utvrdile te ovlasti prvo se razmatra pojam faktičnog koncerna u kontekstu prava povezanih društava, a potom i učinci koncernskog prava na odnos između vladajućeg i ovisnog društva. Dolazi se do zaključka da, iako to ne bi smjelo, vladajuće društvo redovito može navesti ovisno društvo na određeno postupanje.
Zbog toga je prvenstvena svrha pravila o granicama utjecaja vladajućeg društva zaštititi manjinske članove i vjerovnike ovisnoga društva zabranom davanja uputa koje su štetne po ovisno društvo. Vladajuće društvo ovlašteno je davati štetne upute ovisnome društvu, samo iznimno, kada mu ih nadoknadi ili se obveže nadoknaditi do kraja poslovne godine. Takav privilegij vladajućeg društva je uravnotežen pravilima o objektivnoj odgovornosti vladajućeg društva za štetu te pravilima o odgovornosti za štetu njegovih zakonskih zastupnika na temelju pretpostavljene krivnje. Za učinkovitu zaštitu ovisnoga društva ključna je uloga njegove uprave koja je dužna pozornošću urednog i savjesnog gospodarstvenika procijeniti jesu li upute štetne po ovisno društvo te, ako jesu, je li ih vladajuće društvo spremno i u mogućnosti nadoknaditi.The paper analyses key issues of liability of board members in companies which form a so-called factual group of companies. The liability of board members is a natural consequence of their powers. In order to determine the scope of boards\u27 powers, the paper assesses, first, the notion of a factual group of companies and, second, the relationship between a parent and subsidiary company. It can be concluded that, although it is not allowed, parent company is often in a position to force subsidiary company to undertake certain actions. Therefore, the primary goal of the provisions which limit the influence of a parent company is to protect minority shareholders and creditors of the subsidiary company. Parent company is allowed to give harmful
instruction to its subsidiary only exceptionally, when it compensates the harm to the subsidiary before the end of the business year. Such a privilege of the parent company is balanced by the rules on the objective liability of the parent company and the presumed liability of its statutory representatives. The management board of the subsidiary company has a key role in its effective protection because it is has to evaluate, with a care of a diligent businessperson, if the instructions of the parent company are harmful to the subsidiary and if they are, is the parent company ready and able to compensate the harm.Die Arbeit bespricht die wichtigsten Fragen der Haftung der Mitglieder der Gesellschaftsorgane in einem faktischen Konzern. Die Haftung der Mitglieder der Gesellschaftsorgane in einem faktischen Konzern hängt von dem Ausmaß ihrer Befugnisse ab. Um diese Befugnisse festzustellen, setzt man sich in der Arbeit zuerst mit dem Begriff des faktischen Konzerns im Kontext des Rechts von verbundenen
Unternehmen auseinander, wonach man auch die Einwirkungen des Konzernrechts auf die Beziehung zwischen dem herrschenden und abhängigen Unternehmen erörtert. Es wird die Schlussfolgerung gezogen, dass, obwohl das nicht zulässig ist, das herrschende Unternehmen das abhängige Unternehmen zur Vornahme einer
Handlung veranlassen kann. Deshalb ist der Zweck der Regeln über die Grenzen der Einflussnahme des herrschenden Unternehmens, die Minderheitsgesellschafter und Gläubiger des abhängigen Unternehmens durch das Verbot der zum Schaden des abhängigen Unternehmens gegebenen Weisungen zu schützen. Das herrschende Unternehmen ist befugt, schädigende Weisungen dem abhängigen Unternehmen nur in
Ausnahmefällen zu geben, wenn es ihm später den Nachteil ersetzt oder wenn es sich verpflichtet, diesen Nachteil bis zum Ende des Geschäftsjahres zu ersetzen. Solches Privilegium des herrschenden Unternehmens ist durch die Regeln über objektive Schadenshaftung des herrschenden Unternehmens und durch die Regeln über vermutliche Schadenshaftung gesetzlicher Vertreter des herrschenden Unternehmens ins Gleichgewicht gebracht. Der Vorstand des abhängigen Unternehmens spielt die größte Rolle bei selbigem einwirkungsvollen Schutz. Der Vorstand ist demnach verpflichtet, mit der Sorgfalt eines ordentlichen und gewissenhaften Kaufmanns zu
schätzen, ob die Weisungen zum Schaden des abhängigen internehmens gegeben wurden und ob das herrschende Unternehmen bereit und fähig ist, deren Nachteil zu ersetzen.Nel lavoro si disaminano le più rilevanti questioni relative alla responsabilità dei membri degli organi societari che fanno parte di un gruppo di società di fatto. La responsabilità dei membri degli organi societari che fanno parte di un gruppo di società di fatto dipende in maniera significativa dall\u27ampiezza dei loro poteri. Al fine di accertare l’ampiezza di tali poteri, prima di tutto occorre analizzare la nozione
di gruppo di società di fatto nel contesto del diritto delle società collegate; mentre successivamente vanno considerati gli effetti del diritto del gruppo relativamente al rapporto tra società controllante e società controllate. Si giunge alla conclusione che, benché non dovrebbe, la società controllante può imporre alla società controllata di
tenere un determinato comportamento. Per questo motivo il fine primo della regola della limitazione dell’ingerenza della società controllante è rappresentato dalla tutela dei membri di minoranza e dei creditori della società controllata mediante il divieto di impartire istruzioni che potrebbero essere dannose per la società controllata. La società controllante è autorizzata ad impartire istruzioni dannose alla società
controllata soltanto in via eccezionale quando s’impegni a risarcirla al massimo entro la fine dell’anno finanziario. Tale privilegio della società controllante è contemperato dalle regole di responsabilità oggettiva per danni della società controllante e dalle regole sulla responsabilità per danni dei suoi rappresentanti legali in base alla colpa presunta. Al fine di una tutela efficace della società controllata è di fondamentale importanza il ruolo della sua amministrazione, la quale è tenuta secondo i criteri dettati dal coscienzioso e buon imprenditore alla valutazione dell’eventuale dannosità delle istruzioni per la società controllata e, se lo fossero, a stimare se la società controllante sia pronta ed in grado di provvedere al risarciment
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