Reallocating resources to focused factories: a case study in chemotherapy

This study investigates the expected service performance associated with a proposal to reallocate resources from a centralized chemotherapy department to a breast cancer focused factory. Using a slotted queueing model we show that a decrease in performance is expected and calculate the amount of additional resources required to offset these losses. The model relies solely on typical outpatient scheduling system data, making the methodology easy to replicate in other outpatient clinic settings. Finally, the paper highlights important factors to consider when assigning capacity to focused factories. These considerations are generally relevant to other resource allocation decisions

Reallocating resources to focused factories: a case study in chemotherapy

This study investigates the expected service performance associated with a proposal to reallocate resources from a centralized chemotherapy department to a breast cancer focused factory. Using a slotted queueing model we show that a decrease in performance is expected and calculate the amount of additional resources required to offset these losses. The model relies solely on typical outpatient scheduling system data, making the methodology easy to replicate in other outpatient clinic settings. Finally, the paper highlights important factors to consider when assigning capacity to focused factories. These considerations are generally relevant to other resource allocation decisions

Elevated extracellular matrix production and degradation upon bone morphogenetic protein-2 (BMP-2) stimulation point toward a role for BMP-2 in cartilage repair and remodeling

Bone morphogenetic protein-2 (BMP-2) has been proposed as a tool for cartilage repair and as a stimulant of chondrogenesis. In healthy cartilage, BMP-2 is hardly present, whereas it is highly expressed during osteoarthritis. To assess its function in cartilage, BMP-2 was overexpressed in healthy murine knee joints and the effects on proteoglycan (PG) synthesis and degradation were evaluated. Moreover, the contribution of BMP in repairing damage induced by interleukin-1 (IL-1) was investigated. Ad-BMP-2 was injected intra-articularly into murine knee joints, which were isolated 3, 7, and 21 days after injection for histology, immunohistochemistry, and autoradiography. In addition, patellar and tibial cartilage was isolated for RNA isolation or measurement of PG synthesis by means of 35SO4 2- incorporation. To investigate the role for BMP-2 in cartilage repair, cartilage damage was induced by intra-articular injection of IL-1. After 2 days, Ad-BMP-2, Ad-BMP-2 + Ad-gremlin, Ad-gremlin, or a control virus was injected. Whole knee joints were isolated for histology at day 4 or patellae were isolated to measure 35SO42- incorporation. BMP-2 stimulated PG synthesis in patellar cartilage on all days and in tibial cartilage on day 21. Aggrecan mRNA expression had increased on all days in patellar cartilage, with the highest increase on day 7. Collagen type II expression showed a similar expression pattern. In tibial cartilage, collagen type II and aggrecan mRNA expression had increased on days 7 and 21. BMP-2 overexpression also induced increased aggrecan degradation in cartilage. VDIPEN staining (indicating matrix metalloproteinase activity) was elevated on day 3 in tibial cartilage and on days 3 and 7 in patellar cartilage, but no longer was by day 21. Increased NITEGE staining (indicating aggrecanase activity) was found on days 7 and 21. In IL-1-damaged patellar cartilage, BMP-2 boosted PG synthesis. Blocking of BMP activity resulted in a decreased PG synthesis compared with IL-1 alone. This decreased PG synthesis was associated with PG depletion in the cartilage. These data show that BMP-2 boosts matrix turnover in intact and IL-damaged cartilage. Moreover, BMP contributes to the intrinsic repair capacity of damaged cartilage. Increased matrix turnover might be functional in replacing matrix molecules in the repair of a damaged cartilage matrix

Unraveling SSc Pathophysiology; The Myofibroblast

Systemic sclerosis (SSc) is a severe auto-immune disease, characterized by vasculopathy and fibrosis of connective tissues. SSc has a high morbidity and mortality and unfortunately no disease modifying therapy is currently available. A key cell in the pathophysiology of SSc is the myofibroblast. Myofibroblasts are fibroblasts with contractile properties that produce a large amount of pro-fibrotic extracellular matrix molecules such as collagen type I. In this narrative review we will discuss the presence, formation, and role of myofibroblasts in SSc, and how these processes are stimulated and mediated by cells of the (innate) immune system such as mast cells and T helper 2 lymphocytes. Furthermore, current novel therapeutic approaches to target myofibroblasts will be highlighted for future perspective

Local IL-13 gene transfer prior to immune-complex arthritis inhibits chondrocyte death and matrix-metalloproteinase-mediated cartilage matrix degradation despite enhanced joint inflammation

During immune-complex-mediated arthritis (ICA), severe cartilage destruction is mediated by Fcγ receptors (FcγRs) (mainly FcγRI), cytokines (e.g. IL-1), and enzymes (matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs)). IL-13, a T helper 2 (Th2) cytokine abundantly found in synovial fluid of patients with rheumatoid arthritis, has been shown to reduce joint inflammation and bone destruction during experimental arthritis. However, the effect on severe cartilage destruction has not been studied in detail. We have now investigated the role of IL-13 in chondrocyte death and MMP-mediated cartilage damage during ICA. IL-13 was locally overexpressed in knee joints after injection of an adenovirus encoding IL-13 (AxCAhIL-13), 1 day before the onset of arthritis; injection of AxCANI (an empty adenoviral construct) was used as a control. IL-13 significantly increased the amount of inflammatory cells in the synovial lining and the joint cavity, by 30% to 60% at day 3 after the onset of ICA. Despite the enhanced inflammatory response, chondrocyte death was diminished by two-thirds at days 3 and 7. The mRNA level of FcγRI, a receptor shown to be crucial in the induction of chondrocyte death, was significantly down-regulated in synovium. Furthermore, MMP-mediated cartilage damage, measured as neoepitope (VDIPEN) expression using immunolocalization, was halved. In contrast, mRNA levels of MMP-3, -9, -12, and -13 were significantly higher and IL-1 protein, which induces production of latent MMPs, was increased fivefold by IL-13. This study demonstrates that IL-13 overexpression during ICA diminished both chondrocyte death and MMP-mediated VDIPEN expression, even though joint inflammation was enhanced

FcgammaR expression on macrophages is related to severity and chronicity of synovial inflammation and cartilage destruction during experimental immune-complex-mediated arthritis (ICA)

INTRODUCTION: Fcγ receptors (FcγRs) present on cells of the haematopoietic lineage communicate with IgG-containing immune complexes that are abundant in the synovial tissue of patients with rheumatoid arthritis (RA). In mice, three classes of FcγR (RI, RII, and RIII) have been described. Binding of these receptors leads to either activation (FcγRI and RIII) or deactivation (FcγRII) of intracellular transduction pathways. Together, the expression of activating and inhibitory receptors is thought to drive immune-complex-mediated diseases. Earlier studies in our laboratory showed that macrophages of the synovial lining are of utmost importance in the onset and propagation of immune-complex-driven arthritic diseases. Selective depletion of macrophages in the joint downregulated both inflammation and cartilage destruction. As all three classes of FcγR are expressed on synovial macrophages, these cells are among the first that come in contact with immune complexes deposited in the joint. Recently, we observed that when immune complexes were injected into the knee joints of mice, strains susceptible to collagen-type-II arthritis (DBA/1, B10.RIII) developed more severe arthritis than nonsusceptible strains did, or even developed chronic arthritis. One reason why these strains are more susceptible might be their higher levels of FcγRs on macrophage membranes. To test this hypothesis, we investigated the role of FcγRs in inflammation and cartilage damage during immune-complex-mediated arthritis (ICA). First, we studied arthritis and subsequent cartilage damage in mice lacking functional FcγRI and RIII (FcR γ-chain(-/-) mice). Next, DBA/1 mice, which are prone to develop collagen-type-II arthritis (`collagen-induced arthritis'; CIA) and are hypersensitive to immune complexes, were compared with control C57BL/6 mice as regards cartilage damage and the expression and function of FcγRs on their macrophages. AIMS: To examine whether FcγR expression on macrophages is related to severity of synovial inflammation and cartilage destruction during immune-complex-mediated joint inflammation. METHODS: ICA was induced in three strains of mice (FcR γ-chain(-/-), C57BL/6, and DBA/1, which have, respectively, no functional FcγRI and RIII, intermediate basal expression of FcγRs, and high basal expression of FcγRs) by passive immunisation using rabbit anti-lysozyme antibodies, followed by poly-L-lysine lysozyme injection into the right knee joint 1 day later. In other experiments, streptococcal-cell-wall (SCW)- or zymosan-induced arthritis was induced by injecting SCW (25 μg) or zymosan (180 μg) directly into the knee joint. At several time points after arthritis induction, knee joints were dissected and studied either histologically (using haematoxylin/eosin or safranin O staining) or immuno-histochemically. The arthritis severity and the cartilage damage were scored separately on an arbitrary scale of 0-3. FcγRs were immunohistochemically detected using the monoclonal antibody 2.4G2, which detects both FcγRII and RIII. Deposition of IgG and C3c in the arthritic joint tissue was also detected immunohistochemically. Expression of FcγRs by murine peritoneal macrophages was measured using a fluorescence-activated cell sorter (FACS). Peritoneal macrophages were stimulated using heat-aggregated gamma globulins (HAGGs), and production of IL-1 was measured using a bioassay. To assess the levels of IL-1 and its receptor antagonist (IL-1Ra) during arthritis, tissue was dissected and washed in RPMI medium. Washouts were tested for levels of IL-1 and IL-1Ra using radioimmunoassay and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. mRNA was isolated from the tissue, and levels of macrophage inflammatory protein (MIP)-2, monocyte chemoattractant protein (MCP)-1, IL-1, and IL-1Ra were determined using semiquantitative reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). RESULTS: ICA induced in knee joints of C57BL/6 mice caused a florid inflammation at day 3 after induction. To investigate whether this arthritis was FcγR-mediated, ICA was induced in FcR γ-chain(-/-) mice, which lack functional FcγRI and RIII. At day3, virtually no inflammatory cells were found in their knee joints. Levels of mRNA of IL-1, IL-1Ra, MCP-1, and MIP-2, which are involved in the onset of this arthritis, were significantly lower in FcR γ-chain(-/-) mice than in control C57BL/6 mice. Levels of IL-1 protein were also measured. At 6 h after ICA induction, FcR γ-chain(-/-) mice and control C57BL/6 mice showed similar IL-1 production as measured by protein level. By 24 h after induction, however, IL-1 production in the FcR γ-chain(-/-) mice was below the detection limit, whereas the controls were still producing a significant amount. To investigate whether the difference in reaction to immune complexes between the DBA/1 and C57BL/6 mice might be due to variable expression of FcγRs in the knee joint, expression in situ of FcγRs in naïve knee joints of these mice was determined. The monoclonal antibody 2.4G2, which detects both FcγRII and RIII, stained macrophages from the synovial lining of DBA/1 mice more intensely than those from C57BL/6 mice. This finding suggests a higher constitutive expression of FcγRs by macrophages of the autoimmune-prone DBA/1 mice. To quantify the difference in FcγR expression on macrophages of the two strains, we determined the occurrence of FcγRs on peritoneal macrophages by FACS analysis. The levels of FcγR expressed by macrophages were twice as high in the DBA/1 mice as in the C57BL/6 mice (mean fluorescence, respectively, 440 ± 50 and 240 ± 30 intensity per cell). When peritoneal macrophages of both strains were stimulated with immune complexes (HAGGs), we found that the difference in basal FcγR expression was functional. The stimulated macrophages from DBA/1 mice had significantly higher IL-1α levels (120 and 135 pg/ml at 24 and 48 h, respectively) than cells from C57BL/6 mice (45 and 50 pg/ml, respectively). When arthritis was induced using other arthritogenic triggers than immune complexes (zymosan, SCW), all the mouse strains tested (DBA/1, FcR γ-chain(-/-), and C57BL/6) showed similar inflammation, indicating that the differences described above are found only when immune complexes are used to elicit arthritis. We next compared articular cartilage damage in arthritic joints of the three mouse strains FcR γ-chain(-/-), C57BL/6 (intermediate basal expression of FcγRs), and DBA/1 (high basal expression of FcγRs). Three indicators of cartilage damage were investigated: depletion of PGs, chondrocyte death, and erosion of the cartilage matrix. At day 3 after induction of ICA, there was no PG depletion in FcR γ-chain(-/-) mice, whereas PG depletion in the matrix of the C57BL/6 mice was marked and that in the arthritic DBA/1 mice was even greater. PG depletion was still massive at days 7 and 14 in the DBA/1 mice, whereas by day 14 the PG content was almost completely restored in knee joints of the C57BL/6 mice. Chondrocyte death and erosion of cartilage matrix, two indicators of more severe cartilage destruction, were significantly higher in the DBA/1 than in the C57BL/6 mice, while both indicators were completely absent in the FcR γ-chain(-/-) mice. Again, when arthritis was induced using other triggers (SCW, zymosan), all strains showed similar PG depletion and no chondrocyte death or matrix erosion. These findings underline the important role of immune complexes and FcγRs in irreversible cartilage damage. DISCUSSION: Our findings indicate that inflammation and subsequent cartilage damage caused by immune complexes may be related to the occurrence of FcγRs on macrophages. The absence of functional FcγRI and RIII prevented inflammation and cartilage destruction after induction of ICA, whereas high basal expression of FcγRs on resident joint macrophages of similarly treated mice susceptible to autoimmune arthritis was correlated with markedly more synovial inflammation and cartilage destruction. The difference in joint inflammation between the three strains was not due to different susceptibilities to inflammation per se, since intra-articular injection of zymosan or SCW caused comparable inflammation. Although extensive inflammatory cell mass was found in the synovium of all strains after intra-articular injection of zymosan, no irreversible cartilage damage (chondrocyte death or matrix erosion) was found. ICA induced in C57BL/6 and DBA/1 mice did cause irreversible cartilage damage at later time points, indicating that immune complexes and FcγRs play an important role in inducing irreversible cartilage damage. Macrophages communicate with immune complexes via Fcγ receptors. Absence of functional activating receptors completely abrogates the synovial inflammation, as was shown after ICA induction in FcR γ-chain(-/-) mice. However, the γ-chain is essential not only in FcγRI and RIII but also for FcεRI (found on mast cells) and the T cell receptor (TcR)-CD3 (Tcells) complex of γδT cells. However, T, B, or mast cells do not play a role in this arthritis that is induced by passive immunisation. Furthermore, this effect was not caused by a difference in clearance of IgG or complement deposition in the tissue. In this study, DBA/1 mice, which are susceptible to collagen-induced autoimmune arthritis and in a recent study have been shown to react hypersensitively to immune complexes, are shown to express higher levels of FcγRs on both synovial and peritoneal macrophages. Because antibodies directed against the different subclasses of FcγR are not available, no distinction could be made between FcγRII and RIII. Genetic differences in DBA/1 mice in genes coding for or regulating FcγRs may be responsible for altered FcγR expression. If so, these mouse strains would have a heightened risk for immune-complex-mediated diseases. To provide conclusive evidence for the roles of the various classes of FcγR during ICA, experiments are needed in which FcγRs are blocked with specific antibodies, or in which knockout mice lacking one specific class of FcγR are used. The only available specific antibody to FcγR (2.4G2) has a stimulatory effect on cells once bound to the receptor, and therefore cannot be used in blocking experiments. Experiments using specific knockout mice are now being done in our laboratory. Macrophages are the dominant type of cell present in chronic inflammation during RA and their number has been shown to correlate well with severe cartilage destruction. Apart from that, in humans, these synovial tissue macrophages express activating FcRs, mainly FcγIIIa, which may lead to activation of these macrophages by IgG-containing immune complexes. The expression of FcRs on the surface of these cells may have important implications for joint inflammation and severe cartilage destruction and therefore FCRs may constitute a new target for therapeutic intervention

NADPH-oxidase-driven oxygen radical production determines chondrocyte death and partly regulates metalloproteinase-mediated cartilage matrix degradation during interferon-γ-stimulated immune complex arthritis

In previous studies we have found that FcγRI determines chondrocyte death and matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-mediated cartilage destruction during IFN-γ-regulated immune complex arthritis (ICA). Binding of immune complexes (ICs) to FcγRI leads to the prominent production of oxygen radicals. In the present study we investigated the contribution of NADPH-oxidase-driven oxygen radicals to cartilage destruction by using p47phox(-/- )mice lacking a functional NADPH oxidase complex. Induction of a passive ICA in the knee joints of p47phox(-/- )mice resulted in a significant elevation of joint inflammation at day 3 when compared with wild-type (WT) controls as studied by histology. However, when IFN-γ was overexpressed by injection of adenoviral IFN-γ in the knee joint before ICA induction, a similar influx of inflammatory cells was found at days 3 and 7, comprising mainly macrophages in both mouse strains. Proteoglycan depletion from the cartilage layers of the knee joints in both groups was similar at days 3 and 7. Aggrecan breakdown in cartilage caused by MMPs was further studied by immunolocalisation of MMP-mediated neoepitopes (VDIPEN). VDIPEN expression in the cartilage layers of arthritic knee joints was markedly lower (between 30 and 60%) in IFN-γ-stimulated arthritic p47phox(-/- )mice at day 7 than in WT controls, despite significant upregulation of mRNA levels of various MMPs such as MMP-3, MMP-9, MMP-12 and MMP-13 in synovia and MMP-13 in cartilage layers as measured with quantitative RT-PCR. The latter observation suggests that oxygen radicals are involved in the activation of latent MMPs. Chondrocyte death, determined as the percentage of empty lacunae in articular cartilage, ranged between 20 and 60% at day 3 and between 30 and 80% at day 7 in WT mice, and was completely blocked in p47phox(-/- )mice at both time points. FcγRI mRNA expression was significantly lower, and FcγRII and FcγRIII were higher, in p47phox(-/- )mice than in controls. NADPH-oxidase-driven oxygen radical production determines chondrocyte death and aggravates MMP-mediated cartilage destruction during IFN-γ-stimulated IC-mediated arthritis. Upregulation of FcγRI by oxygen radicals may contribute to cartilage destruction

Rheumatoid Arthritis Patients With Circulating Extracellular Vesicles Positive for IgM Rheumatoid Factor Have Higher Disease Activity

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is an autoimmune inflammatory disease that mainly affects synovial joints. Validated laboratory parameters for RA diagnosis are higher blood levels of rheumatoid factor IgM (IgM-RF), anti-citrullinated protein autoantibodies (ACPA), C-reactive protein (CRP) levels and erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR). Clinical parameters used are the number of tender (TJC) and swollen joints (SJC) and the global patient visual analog score (VAS). To determine disease remission in patients a disease activity score (DAS28) can be calculated based on SJC, TJC, VAS, and ESR (or alternatively CRP). However, subtle and better predictive changes to follow treatment responses in individual patients cannot be measured by the above mentioned parameters nor by measuring cytokine levels in blood. As extracellular vesicles (EVs) play a role in intercellular communication and carry a multitude of signals we set out to determine their value as a biomarker for disease activity. EVs were isolated from platelet-free plasma of 41 RA patients and 24 healthy controls (HC) by size exclusion chromatography (SEC). We quantified the particle and protein concentration, using NanoSight particle tracking analysis and micro-BCA, respectively, and observed no differences between RA patients and HC. In plasma of 28 out of 41 RA patients IgM-RF was detectable by ELISA, and in 13 out of these 28 seropositive RA patients (RF+RA) IgM-RF was also detected on their isolated pEVs (IgM-RF+). In seronegative RA patients (RF−RA) we did not find any RF present on pEVs. When comparing disease parameters we found no differences between RF+RA and RF−RA patients, except for increased ESR levels in RF+RA patients. However, RF+RA patients with IgM-RF+ pEVs showed significantly higher levels of CRP and ESR and also VAS and DAS28 were significantly increased compared to RA+ patients without IgM-RF+ pEVs. This study shows for the first time the presence of IgM-RF on pEVs in a proportion of RF+RA patients with a higher disease activity

IL-1β-Mediated Activation of Adipose-Derived Mesenchymal Stromal Cells Results in PMN Reallocation and Enhanced Phagocytosis: A Possible Mechanism for the Reduction of Osteoarthritis Pathology

Background: Injection of adipose-derived mesenchymal stromal cells (ASCs) into murine knee joints after induction of inflammatory collagenase-induced osteoarthritis (CiOA) reduces development of joint pathology. This protection is only achieved when ASCs are applied in early CiOA, which is characterized by synovitis and high S100A8/A9 and IL-1β levels, suggesting that inflammation is a prerequisite for the protective effect of ASCs. Our objective was to gain more insight into the interplay between synovitis and ASC-mediated amelioration of CiOA pathology.Methods: CiOA was induced by intra-articular collagenase injection. Knee joint sections were stained with hematoxylin/eosin and immunolocalization of polymorphonuclear cells (PMNs) and ASCs was performed using antibodies for NIMP-R14 and CD271, respectively. Chemokine expression induced by IL-1β or S100A8/A9 was assessed with qPCR and Luminex. ASC-PMN co-cultures were analyzed microscopically and with Luminex for inflammatory mediators. Migration of PMNs through transwell membranes toward conditioned medium of non-stimulated ASCs (ASCNS-CM) or IL-1β-stimulated ASCs (ASCIL-1β-CM) was examined using flow cytometry. Phagocytic capacity of PMNs was measured with labeled zymosan particles.Results: Intra-articular saline injection on day 7 of CiOA increased synovitis after 6 h, characterized by PMNs scattered throughout the joint cavity and the synovium. ASC injection resulted in comparable numbers of PMNs which clustered around ASCs in close interaction with the synovial lining. IL-1β-stimulation of ASCs in vitro strongly increased expression of PMN-attracting chemokines CXCL5, CXCL7, and KC, whereas S100A8/A9-stimulation did not. In agreement, the number of clustered PMNs per ASC was significantly increased after 6 h of co-culturing with IL-1β-stimulated ASCs. Also migration of PMNs toward ASCIL-1β-CM was significantly enhanced (287%) when compared to ASCNS-CM. Interestingly, association of PMNs with ASCs significantly diminished KC protein release by ASCs (69% lower after 24 h), accompanied by reduced release of S100A8/A9 protein by the PMNs. Moreover, phagocytic capacity of PMNs was strongly enhanced after priming with ASCIL-1β-CM.Conclusions: Local application of ASCs in inflamed CiOA knee joints results in clustering of attracted PMNs with ASCs in the synovium, which is likely mediated by IL-1β-induced up-regulation of chemokine release by ASCs. This results in enhanced phagocytic capacity of PMNs, enabling the clearance of debris to attenuate synovitis