Research needs and gaps in understanding.

<p>Research needs and gaps in understanding.</p

Annotated list of definitions for mass drug administration (MDA) programs used by the World Health Organization and the research community [84].

<p>Annotated list of definitions for mass drug administration (MDA) programs used by the World Health Organization and the research community <a href="http://www.plosntds.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pntd.0002447#pntd.0002447-WHO3" target="_blank">[84]</a>.</p

Major factors that affect individual compliance with mass drug administration for elimination of lymphatic filariasis.

<p>Major factors that affect individual compliance with mass drug administration for elimination of lymphatic filariasis.</p

Pleomorphy of <i>Wolbachia</i> in female <i>B. malayi</i>.

<p><b>Panel A</b> Large bacillary <i>Wolbachia</i> in the lateral chord of a 3 week old fourth stage larva. The arrow points to a small nucleoid. <b>B</b> Cross-section of the midbody region of a 5 week old immature female. A large vacuole containing a cluster of <i>Wolbachia</i> (arrow) is seen at the inner part of the lateral chord. <b>C</b> shows a higher power view of B with ‘inclusion-like’ vacuole containing three <i>Wolbachia</i>. Note the varying density of the cytoplasm in the bacteria. The arrow head indicates the common vacuole membrane. <b>D </b><i>Wolbachia</i> with a large and prominent nucleoid (arrow) in the lateral chord of a 6 week old immature female. <b>E</b> Large coccoid <i>Wolbachia</i> in the lateral chord of a 12 week old (mature) female. <b>F</b> Coccoid, electron dense <i>Wolbachia</i> in morula stage embryo within the uterus of a 12 week old female. Note the large nucleoid (arrow) and the expanded space between the membranes. Arrowheads indicate membranes. <b>G</b> The three membranes surrounding <i>Wolbachia</i> in the morula stage embryo within a 12 week old female. Note the symmetrical inner and outer leaflets (arrowheads) of the cytoplasmic inner membrane (im), the outer membrane (om) and the vacuole membrane (vm). Ov, ovary; nu, nucleus; ax, axons. Scale bar corresponds to 100 nm (A–F) or 25 nm (G).</p

A basic troubleshooting guide for commonly encountered problems in MDA programs.

<p>A basic troubleshooting guide for commonly encountered problems in MDA programs.</p

Ultrastructural characteristics of predominant <i>Wolbachia</i> forms of <i>B. malayi</i> found in the examined parasite material.

<p>Ultrastructural characteristics of predominant <i>Wolbachia</i> forms of <i>B. malayi</i> found in the examined parasite material.</p

<i>Wolbachia</i> organelles in the lateral chord of 5 weeks (D,E) and 12 weeks (A,B,C) old female <i>B. malayi</i>.

<p><b>Panel A</b> Overview of the hypodermal chord showing few <i>Wolbachia</i> in the central region sometimes in the vicinity of the Golgi apparatus. <b>B</b> Two <i>Wolbachia</i> in close contact to Golgi between them an accumulation of vesicles (arrowhead). <b>C</b> In close proximity to Golgi potentially dividing <i>Wolbachia</i> with vesicles (arrowheads within the endosomal membrane. Asterisk indicates an artifact. <b>D </b><i>Wolbachia</i> surrounded by multiple membranes in close proximity to the endoplasmic reticulum and the Golgi apparatus. <b>E </b><i>Wolbachia</i> inside a phagolysosome. Cu, cuticle; m, mitochondrion; Go, Golgi; g, glycogen; W, <i>Wolbachia</i>; ax, axons;ER, endoplasmic reticulum. Scale bar corresponds to 500 nm.</p

Immunogold-labeling of <i>Wolbachia</i> and their vesicles in the lateral chord and embryos of a 12 weeks old female <i>B. malayi</i> using mab WSP-1.

<p><b>Panel A</b> Labeled <i>Wolbachia</i> (arrows) next to multiple labeled membrane vesicles (arrowheads) in an embryo. <b>B</b> Large vesicle (arrow) with an accumulation of many small labeled vesicles (arrowheads). <b>C</b> Higher powered view of a vesicle-containing body, showing many small circular membrane structures (arrowheads) surrounded by an outer membrane (arrow). <b>D</b> Three <i>Wolbachia</i> (arrows) in the vicinity of WSP<i>-</i>1 positive vesicles (arrowheads). <b>E </b><i>Wolbachia</i> with gold particles labeling the outer membrane (arrow) and vesicles (arrowhead). <b>F</b> Gold particles labeling a large <i>Wolbachia</i>-derived vesicle and adjacent membrane fragments (arrowheads). <b>G</b> Higher power view of one <i>Wolbachia</i> indicating labeling of the inner <i>Wolbachia</i> membrane (arrow) and outer membrane vesicles (arrowhead). Scale bar corresponds to 100 nm.</p

<i>Wolbachia</i> in the distal part of the lateral chord of a female 12 weeks old <i>B. malayi</i>.

<p><b>Panel A</b> Sagittal section showing numerous single and clustered <i>Wolbachia</i> (arrows). While <i>Wolbachia</i> were abundant in the posterior quarter of the female’s lateral chord (paralleling the ovaries, oviducts and the uteri containing early stage embryos) only a few single endobacteria were seen in the lateral chord at the anterior end of the worm. <b>B</b> Higher power view of panel A showing small vesicles, single <i>Wolbachia</i>, and small ‘inclusion-like’ <i>Wolbachia</i> clusters that appear to be enclosed by a common membrane (arrowheads). W, <i>Wolbachia</i>; Cu, cuticle, m, mitochondrion; mu, muscles; bl, basal lamina; ut, uterus; g, glycogen. Scale bar corresponds to 1 µm.</p

Formation and release of vesicles by <i>Wolbachia</i> in morula stage embryos in the uterus of a 12 week old female <i>B. malayi</i>.

<p><b>Panel A</b> Overview of morula cells showing three electron dense <i>Wolbachia. </i><b>B</b> Two <i>Wolbachia</i> surrounded by a common vacuole membrane. Note the nucleoid (white arrow) and the vesicles within the vacuole (black arrow). <b>C</b> Higher powered view of panel A with a coccoid <i>Wolbachia</i> with 2 large vesicles (arrows) within the same vacuole membrane. <b>D </b><i>Wolbachia</i> with an attached large vesicle (arrow) with a double membrane. <b>E </b><i>Wolbachia</i> next to several large vesicles (black arrow). Note the nucleoid (white arrow). <b>F</b> Overview of several <i>Wolbachia</i> (W) and <i>Wolbachia</i>-derived vesicles (arrows). Note the variable electron density of <i>Wolbachia.</i> Arrowheads indicate membranes. W, <i>Wolbachia</i>; nu, nucleus. Scale bar corresponds to 2 µm (<b>A</b>) or 100 nm (<b>B–F</b>).</p