WILDCOMS

Disease and contaminants can both pose major risks to wildlife and human populations. Disease is a natural driver regulating the dynamics of wildlife populations, but some diseases warrant particular attention because they (i) cause major mortalities that lead to population crashes, (eg., VHD in rabbits), (ii) threaten wildlife species of high conservation concern (for example squirrelpox virus in red squirrels), or (iii) pose a potential threat to Man (eg., rabies, avian influenza). The wildlife Disease & Contaminant Monoitoring and Surveillance (WILDCOMS) Network is a collaborative project among the major disease and contaminant monitoring schemes for vertebrate wildlife that operate in the United Kingdom. These schemes are run by various government agencies and laboratories, research centres, institutes, and academia. The overall aim is to establish a network which will foster and facilitate knowledge exchange, harmonisation towards best practice, and productive collaboration between: (i) partner organisations; (ii) surveillance schemes and end-users. It will aim to provide end-users with an integrated overview of environmental disease and contaminant risk. The specific objectives will be to develop the network and use it to address common challenges, specifically maximising dissemination of information to stakeholders and harmonisation towards common operational procedures to facilitate interaction and collaboration

Inorganic elements in the livers of Eurasian otters, Lutra lutra, from England and Wales in 2007 & 2008: a Predatory Bird Monitoring Scheme (PBMS) report

This is a report on the initial findings of a collaborative study between the Predatory Bird Monitoring Scheme (PBMS) and the Cardiff University Otter Project (CUOP). The study analysed the concentrations of 16 metals and semi-metals in the livers of 107 Eurasian otters (Lutra lutra) that had been found dead in 2007 and 2008 and collected by the CUOP. This aim of this work was to determine the current concentrations of inorganic elements accumulated by otters and whether exposure to heavy metals (lead, mercury, cadmium) in particular is likely to be associated with adverse effects. This is the first study of inorganic elements in otter livers from Europe for nearly 10 years. The otters that were analysed were from England and Wales and included adult and subadult males and females. Liver tissue was analysed using Inductively Coupled Plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) techniques. The concentrations of inorganic elements measured in the present study were within the range previously reported for Eurasian otters in Britain and elsewhere in Europe. Concentrations varied with age and/or sex for some elements. For the heavy metals mercury and cadmium, liver concentrations generally increased with age whereas for lead, juveniles generally had higher liver lead concentrations than adults although for lead these difference were not statistically significant. Aluminium and chromium were the only elements that varied significantly in concentrations between years. It is unclear whether the inter-year variation in aluminium and chromium represent significant inter-year changes in exposure and/or accumulation or may simply reflect local-scale variation in the provenance of otters and their associated exposure. The liver concentrations of heavy metals (mercury, cadmium and lead) in all the otters analysed were below those associated with toxic effects in mammals, although liver lead concentrations in a small number of otters were close to the level of concern

Lead (Pb) concentrations in predatory bird livers 2010 and 2011: a Predatory Bird Monitoring Scheme (PBMS) report

The Predatory Bird Monitoring Scheme (PBMS; http://pbms.ceh.ac.uk/) is the umbrella project that encompasses the Centre for Ecology & Hydrology’s National Capability contaminant monitoring and surveillance work on avian predators. By monitoring sentinel vertebrate species, the PBMS aims to detect and quantify current and emerging chemical threats to the environment and in particular to vertebrate wildlife. Lead (Pb) is a highly toxic metal that acts as a non-specific poison affecting all body systems and has no known biological requirement. Sources of Pb in the environment include lead mining, the refining and smelting of lead and other metals, the manufacture and use of alkyl lead fuel additives, and the use of lead ammunition. The present study is the first two years of a PBMS monitoring programme to quantify the scale of exposure to [and associated risk from] Pb in predatory birds. The aim is to quantify the extent of exposure to lead [as assessed from liver residues] in two predatory bird species, the red kite (Mivus milvus) and the sparrowhawk (Accipiter nisus). The red kite is a scavenger and, as such, is particularly at risk from consumption of Pb ammunition in unretrieved game. Sparrowhawks prey predominantly upon live passerine birds that are unlikely to be shot in the UK; likely sources of exposure are diffuse Pb contamination although some individuals may also be exposed to Pb particles ingested by their prey. We also examined the liver Pb isotope ratios in to explore whether they can be used to ascribe likely sources of any Pb detected in the birds. Red kites had significantly higher Pb concentration than those measured in sparrowhawks but the majority of sparrowhawks and all the red kites had liver Pb concentrations below those thought to cause clinical and sub-clinical adverse effects in Falconiforme species. There was overlap in the liver Pb isotope ratios of red kites and sparrowhawks yet there was evidence of separation between the two species. There was also evidence of overlap with the isotope signature for coal and for Pb shot but the isotope signatures in the bird livers were distinct from that of petrol Pb. The Pb isotope pattern observed in the red kites and sparrowhawks in the current study may reflect the fact that liver Pb concentrations were low in the small sample of birds that were analysed and may have been a result of exposure to low-level, diffuse contamination.birds. Red kites had significantly higher Pb concentration than those measured in sparrowhawks but the majority of sparrowhawks and all the red kites had liver Pb concentrations below those thought to cause clinical and sub-clinical adverse effects in Falconiforme species. There was overlap in the liver Pb isotope ratios of red kites and sparrowhawks yet there was evidence of separation between the two species. There was also evidence of overlap with the isotope signature for coal and for Pb shot but the isotope signatures in the bird livers were distinct from that of petrol Pb. The Pb isotope pattern observed in the red kites and sparrowhawks in the current study may reflect the fact that liver Pb concentrations were low in the small sample of birds that were analysed and may have been a result of exposure to low-level, diffuse contamination

A higher order model for thin-walled structures with deformable cross-sections

AbstractA higher order model for the analysis of linear, prismatic thin-walled structures that considers the cross-section warping together with the cross-section in-plane flexural deformation is presented in this paper. The use of a one-dimentional model for the analysis of thin-walled structures, which have an inherent complex three-dimensional (3D) behaviour, can only be successful and competitive when compared with shell finite element models if it fulfills a twofold objective: (i) an enrichment of the model in order to as accurately as possible reproduce its 3D elasticity equations and (ii) the definition of a consistent criterion for uncoupling the beam equations, allowing to identify structural deformation modes.The displacement field is approximated through a linear combination of products between a set of linear independent functions defined over the cross-section and the associated weights only dependent on the beam axis; this approximation is not constrained by any ab initio kinematic assumptions. Towards an efficient application of the approximation procedure, the cross-section is discretized into thin-walled elements, being the displacement field approximated for each element independently of the displacement direction. The approximation is thus hp refined enhancing the “capture” of the 3D structural mechanics of thin-walled structures. The beam model governing equations are obtained through the integration over the cross-section of the corresponding elasticity equations weighted by the cross-section global approximation functions.A criterion for uncoupling the beam governing equations is established, allowing to (i) retrieve the classic equations of the thin-walled beam theory both for open and closed sections and (ii) derive a set of uncoupled deformation modes representing higher order effects. The criterion is based on the solution of the polynomial eigenvalue problem associated with the beam differential equations, allowing to quantify the Saint-Venant principle for thin-walled structures. In fact, the solution of the non linear eigenvalue problem yields a twelve fold null eigenvalue (representing polynomial solutions) that are verified to represent beam classic solutions and sets of pairs and quadruplets of non-null eigenvalues corresponding to higher order modes of deformation

Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) and inorganic elements in predatory bird livers and eggs 2007 to 2009: a Predatory Bird Monitoring Scheme (PBMS) Report

The Predatory Bird Monitoring Scheme (PBMS; http://pbms.ceh.ac.uk/) is the umbrella project that encompasses the Centre for Ecology & Hydrology’s National Capability contaminant monitoring and surveillance work on avian predators. By monitoring sentinel vertebrate species, the PBMS aims to detect and quantify current and emerging chemical threats to the environment and in particular to vertebrate wildlife. Sparrowhawk livers were analysed for a range of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) and heavy metals. Sparrowhawks are studied because they have a wide distribution across the Britain and can be used as a sentinel species for the terrestrial environment. Mean PCB and mercury liver concentrations were below those thought to have an adverse effect on individual birds. Pollutants, such as mercury and PCBs, can affect development and hatchability. Therefore, the PBMS also monitors the levels of contaminants in the eggs of a range of species including those of conservation concern, such as golden eagle and the re-introduced white-tailed sea eagle. Other species that are monitored are the northern gannet, which is used as a monitor of the marine environment, and merlin that hunts in upland habitats. The residues measured in the eggs of golden eagle and gannets collected between 2007 and 2009 were below those thought to have an adverse effect, but some residues in individual merlin eggs were above concentrations suggested to be indicative of no effect concentrations for birds generally. Few white-tailed see eagle eggs are received for analysis by the PBMS but many of the eggs that have been analysed, including one of the eggs analysed for this report, have DDE, PCB and/or mercury concentrations above levels associated with adverse effects on bird embryos and hatching success. In terms of long-term trends, there has been a decline in congener sum PCB contamination in the eggs of most of the species that have been monitored, except for coastal nesting golden eagles. In contrast however, there has been no significant decline over time in PCB concentrations in sparrowhawk livers and concentrations of ‘Paris 10’ congener sum and PCB-TEQ concentrations have also largely remained unchanged in both livers and eggs since monitoring began in 1996. Evidence for changes over time in mercury concentrations in predatory birds or their eggs is inconsistent across the species monitored. Where a decline has been detected, it has occurred before approximately 1990 and remained largely unchanged since then

The Predatory Bird Monitoring Scheme (PBMS) Report 2006-7

The Predatory Bird Monitoring Scheme (PBMS) examines the levels of certain pollutants in selected wildlife species in Britain. It started in the 1960s to assess the impact of organochlorine pesticides on raptor populations, and the scheme is now the longest-running of its kind in the world. The aims of the PBMS are to monitor the levels of contaminants to determine how and why they vary between species and regions, how they are changing over time, and the risks they may have on individual birds and on their populations. Dead predatory birds are submitted to the PBMS by the public and by wildlife hospitals, veterinarian and zoological organisations. Eggs are collected, under licence, from a range of nests. The majority of these eggs are addled or deserted, although for some species, e.g. northern gannets, fresh egg are sampled. Second generation anticoagulant rodenticides (SGARs) are potentially toxic to all mammals and birds, and predators that feed upon rodents are particularly likely to be exposed to these compounds. Since 1983 the PBMS has monitored SGAR residues in barn owls, while kestrels have been monitored since 2001. The proportion of barn owls which have one or more SGARs in their liver increased from less than 10% in the 1980s to approximately 40% in the early 2000s. However, there has been a small decrease in this percentage in the last few years. A higher proportion of kestrels have detectable residues of SGARs in their liver than barn owls with 60% of birds received in the years 2001 to 2006 having one or more SGAR in their liver. There is no evidence of a change over time in the proportion ok kestrels with detectable liver SGAR residues. Overall, the high incidence of exposure amongst monitored species remains of concern. Sparrowhawk livers are analysed for a range of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) and heavy metals. Sparrowhawks are studied because they have a wide distribution across the Britain and can be used as a sentinel species for the terrestrial environment. Following restrictions on its use as an agricultural pesticide, mercury concentrations have declined in sparrowhawks. However, despite PCBs being banned in 1981, there has not been any long-term change in polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) liver concentrations in sparrowhawks during the period 1968-2006. In herons, used as a sentinel species for freshwater habitats, both PCB and mercury concentrations have declined. In 2006, mean PCB and mercury concentrations in both species were below those thought to have an adverse effect on individual birds. Pollutants, such as mercury and PCBs, can affect development and hatchability.. Therefore, the PBMS monitors the levels of contaminants in the eggs of a range of species including those of conservation concern such as golden eagle and the re-introduced white-tailed sea eagle. Other species that are monitored are the northern gannet, which are used as a monitor of the marine environment, and merlin that hunt in upland habitats. In general, and specifically in 2006, the residues measured in the eggs of golden eagle and gannets are below those thought to have an adverse effect on bird eggs, but some residues in individual merlin eggs were at concentrations associated with effects in other species. Few white-tailed see eagle eggs are received for analysis by the PBMS but a large proportion of those eggs that have been analysed, including the egg collected in 2006, have DDE, PCB and mercury concentrations above levels associated with adverse effects on bird embryos and the hatching success of eggs. Despite the withdrawal of PCBs from manufacturing over 20 years ago, the evidence for declining PCB concentrations in predatory birds is equivocal, with declines in liver or egg residues in some species but not in others. Mercury concentrations in most species have not significantly changed during the monitoring period

Concentrations of perfluorinated compounds (PFCs) in northern gannet, Morus bassanus, eggs: a Predatory Bird Monitoring Scheme (PBMS) report

The Predatory Bird Monitoring Scheme (PBMS; http://pbms.ceh.ac.uk/) is the umbrella project that encompasses the Centre for Ecology & Hydrology’s National Capability contaminant monitoring and surveillance work on avian predators. By monitoring sentinel vertebrate species, the PBMS aims to detect and quantify current and emerging chemical threats to the environment and in particular to vertebrate wildlife. This report presents the results of a pilot study to quantify the concentrations of perfluorinated compounds (PFCs) in the eggs of the northern gannet, Morus bassanus, from the Ailsa Craig and Bass Rock colonies off the UK coast. The principle aim of this work determine the concentrations of PFCs that are accumulated in the eggs of gannets and whether there was any evidence of differences in accumulation between eggs from the two colonies studied. The egg contents were analysed by Liquid Chromatograph – Mass Spectrometry (LC-MS) techniques. Compounds from both the perfluorinated carboxylate and perfluorinated sulfonate groups of PFCs were quantified. PFCs were detected in all of the ten eggs analysed, with both carboxylate and sulfonate compounds present. Perfluorobutanoate (PFBA) and perfluorononanoate (PFNA) concentrations were both significantly higher in eggs from Ailsa Craig compared to those from Bass Rock but there was no difference between colonies in egg concentrations of sum PFC, sum carboxylate or sum sulphonate concengtrations. Overall data from this limited one year of sampling suggests that gannet eggs from both Ailsa Craig and Bass Rock contain relatively low concentrations compared to eggs from some other species that have been examined. Concentrations of perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) were with an order of magnitude of residues associated with adverse effects [and for one egg from Bass Rock these levels were exceeded] but the majority of eggs from both colonies contained PFOS residues that exceeded a suggested predicted no effect concentration (PNEC) for this compound

Anticoagulant rodenticides in predatory birds 2012: a Predatory Bird Monitoring Scheme (PBMS) report

The Predatory Bird Monitoring Scheme (PBMS; http://pbms.ceh.ac.uk/) is the umbrella project that encompasses the Centre for Ecology & Hydrology’s National Capability contaminant monitoring and surveillance work on avian predators. By monitoring sentinel vertebrate species, the PBMS aims to detect and quantify current and emerging chemical threats to the environment and in particular to vertebrate wildlife. Anticoagulant rodenticides, and in particular second generation anticoagulant rodenticides (SGARs), can be toxic to all mammals and birds. Predators that feed upon rodents are particularly likely to be exposed to these compounds. The PBMS, together with other studies, has shown that there is widespread exposure to SGARs of a diverse range of predators in Britain and that some mortalities occur as a result. This report describes the PBMS monitoring for SGARs in barn owls (Tyto alba) found dead in 2012, summarises long term trends in exposure in this species, and compares the relative prevalence of SGARs in barn owls in England and Scotland. We also report the results of an initial investigation into SGAR contamination in 42 sparrowhawks (Accipiter nisus) found dead between 2010 and 2012. Sparrowhawks normally feed on birds and the aim of this investigation was to assess the potential importance of avian foodwebs in exposure of predators to SGARs. SGARs were detected in 87% of the 63 barn owls that were collected in 2012. The most prevalent compounds were difenacoum, bromadiolone and brodifacoum. The majority of the residues were low (< 0.1 µg/g wet weight). One owl was diagnosed as likely to have been poisoned by SGARs. Most of the sparrowhawk livers that were analysed had detectable liver SGAR concentrations, again mainly difenacoum, bromadiolone and brodifacoum (79%, 55% and 64% of birds, respectively). The proportion of sparrowhawks with detectable residues of one or more SGAR (93%) did not differ significantly from that for barn owls (86%) collected over the same time 2010-12 time period. Co-occurrence of multiple residues in the liver was common in barn owls and sparrowhawks (70% and 74% of birds respectively). Sparrowhawks had significantly lower liver sum SGAR concentrations than barn owls in those birds that had detectable residues. SGARs have been monitored in barn owls since 1983. Data on long-term trends have been adjusted to account for changes over time in sensitivity of analytical methods. This has meant that very low residues (<0.025 µg/g wet weight), which are now detectable, are not included in the time trend analysis. Overall, the proportion of both adult and juvenile barn owls with detectable liver concentrations of one or more SGAR has increased significantly over the course of monitoring. The proportion of barn owls with detectable SGAR residues over the period 1990-2012 was two-fold higher in England than in Scotland but residue magnitude did not differ between birds from the two areas

Liver concentrations of flame retardants in Eurasian otters (Lutra lutra) collected from Scotland between 2013 and 2015: a Predatory Bird Monitoring Scheme (PBMS) report

The Predatory Bird Monitoring Scheme (PBMS; http://pbms.ceh.ac.uk/) is the umbrella project that encompasses the Centre for Ecology & Hydrology’s National Capability contaminant monitoring and surveillance work on avian predators. By monitoring sentinel vertebrate species, the PBMS aims to detect and quantify current and emerging chemical threats to the environment and in particular to vertebrate wildlife. The current study presents the results of a study in which the concentrations of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) were determined in the livers of a small sample of Eurasian otters (Lutra lutra) that died in Scotland between 2013 and 2015. The principle aim of this work was to determine the current concentrations of PBDEs that are accumulated by otters in Scotland and whether these concentrations are likely to cause adverse effects in those individuals analysed. The otters that were analysed included adult and sub-adult, males and females although there were insufficient sample numbers to test for differences among these demographic groups. Liver tissue was analysed using Gas Chromatograph – Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS). PBDEs were detected in all otter livers analysed, with congeners BDE47, BDE153 and BDE100 dominant in the congener profile. The toxicological consequences of exposure to PBDEs in otters are uncertain given the lack of established links between liver PBDE concentrations and health effects in this species but concentrations were lower than those associated with adverse effects in mink. The general low levels of PBDEs suggests that there is little evidence to date of toxicologically significant contamination of Scottish otters with these compounds. There is clear evidence that Scottish otters have significantly lower residues of the less-brominated PBDEs than those previously measured in otters from England and Wales. However, these results may not be representative of otters from throughout Scotland as the present sample came predominantly from the Inner Hebrides