Mechanical responses of the battery module in small size.

<p>Comparison of results of the module under constrained compression condition for (a) cubic dense packing and (b) hexagonal dense packing. The plots of deformed modules in the experiment and simulations are shown in the subplot of the figure.</p

Experiment setups for validation.

<p>(a) The setups of compression experiments for the module. Battery module for (b) cubic dense packing and (c) hexagonal dense packing during compression experiment.</p

Validation for hexagonal dense packing under different sizes.

<p>(a) Size of hexagonal dense packing defined by <i>b</i> and <i>l</i>. Comparisons of mechanical responses of the module under different sizes between the EBM model and DBM model where the packing density is variable. The sizes and densities of the module are labeled in each graph.</p

Mechanical behavior of 18650 lithium-ion battery.

<p>(a) The 18650 lithium-ion battery. Nominal stress–strain curve of a single LIB under (b) radial compression and (c) axial compression conditions.</p

Summary of material properties for a single cell.

<p>Summary of material properties for a single cell.</p

Comparison of 3D and 2D models under constrained compression loading conditions.

<p>Comparison of 3D and 2D models under constrained compression loading conditions.</p

Mechanical properties of RUC.

<p>True stress–strain curves of two typical RUCs in uniaxial compression simulation. The plots of deformed RUCs are shown in subplot of the figure.</p

Validation for cubic dense packing under different sizes.

<p>(a) Size of cubic dense packing defined by <i>b</i> and <i>l</i>. Comparisons of mechanical responses of the module under different sizes between the EBM model and DBM model where the packing density is constant. The sizes of the module are labeled in each graph.</p

The stress evolution of the module during deformation.

<p>Progression of the buildup under constrained compression condition for EBM model (top) and DBM model (bottom).</p

Mechanical behavior of the module for asymmetric packing modes.

<p>(a) Mechanical responses of the module with a DBM model for different packing modes when <i>b</i> = l = 10. (b) The relationship of theoretical plateau strain and packing mode. (c) Mechanical responses of the module for <i>θ</i> = 5π/6 with variables <i>b</i> and <i>l</i>. (d) The fitting function relationship with the ratio of packing density to that of corresponding RUC.</p