Choosing Short: An Explanation of the Similarities and Dissimilarities in the Distribution Patterns of Binding and Covaluation

Covaluation is the generalization of coreference introduced by Tanya Reinhart. Covaluation distributes in patterns that are very similar yet not entirely identical to those of binding. On a widespread view, covaluation and binding distribute similarly because binding is defined in terms of covaluation. Yet on Reinhart's view, binding and covaluation are not related that way: binding pertains to syntax, covaluation does not. Naturally, the widespread view can easily explain the similarities between binding and covaluation, whereas Reinhart can easily explain the dissimilarities. Reciprocally, the widespread view finds it harder to explain the dissimilarities, whereas Reinhart finds it harder to explain the similarities. Reinhart and others have proposed more than one explanation of the similarities, but as I argue, these explanations do not work. Hence although I adopt Reinhart's view, I propose a new explanation of the similarities and dissimilarities between binding and covaluation: While Reinhart has invoked semantic structure only to explain dissimilarities, I do so to explain both similarities and dissimilarities at once. Finally, I examine in light of this approach the topics of language acquisition, only-constructions, the identity predicate, the Partee/Bach/Higginbotham problem, the Dahl puzzle and its recent versions by Roelofsen

Relative abundance (%) of the most abundant phyla in ileal and cecal digesta and feces of broiler chickens raised at two geographical locations.

<p>Relative abundance (%) of the most abundant phyla in ileal and cecal digesta and feces of broiler chickens raised at two geographical locations.</p

Unweighted principal component analysis.

<p>For: a) control and treatment animals in day 0 (blue), control animals in day 21 (green) and treatment animals in day 21 (red) b) control animals in day 0 (blue) and control animals in day 21 (red) c) treatment animals in day 0 (blue) and treatment animals in day 21(red) d) control animals in day 21 (blue) and treatment animals in day 21 (red). UPGMA clustering and Jackkniffing for the unweighted UniFrac data e) For the UPGMA cladogram on the left: Orange colour represents animals in day 0; red for the control animals in day 21 and blue for the treatment animals in day21. d) For the Jackknife supported tree layout the labels are coloured according to the group as: Black for animals in day 0; red for the control animals in day 21 and blue for treatment animals in day 21. The lines are coloured by the Jackknife supported percentages: Red for 75–100% support; Green for 50–75% support; Yellow for 25–50% support and Blue for <25% support.</p

Cytokine production by mitogen-stimulated PBMC from pigs fed diets containing Bt and isogenic maize (pg/mL)¹.

1<p>Values are given as the median with 25^th to 75^th percentiles in parentheses.</p>2<p>Isogenic: isogenic maize diet for 110 days.</p>3<p>Bt: Bt maize diet for 110 days.</p>4<p>Isogenic/Bt: isogenic maize diet for 30 days followed by Bt maize diet for 80 days.</p>5<p>Bt/isogenic: Bt maize diet for 30 days followed by isogenic maize diet for 80 days.</p

Composition of diets (as is basis, %).

1<p>Isogenic: non-GM parent line maize.</p>2<p>Bt; Bt MON810 maize.</p>3<p>Lactofeed 70 contains 70% lactose, 11.5% protein, 0.5% oil, 7.5% ash and 0.5% fibre (Volac, Cambridge, UK).</p>4<p>Immunopro 35 contains whey protein powder - protein 35% (Volac, Cambridge, UK).</p>5<p>Premix provided per kg of complete diet: Cu, 155 mg; Fe, 90 mg; Mn, 47 mg; Zn, 120 mg, I, 0.6 mg; Se, 0.3 mg; vitamin A, 6000 IU; vitamin D_3, 1000 IU; vitamin E, 100 IU; vitamin K, 4 mg; vitamin B_12, 15 µg; riboflavin, 2 mg; nicotinic acid, 12 mg; pantothenic acid, 10 mg; choline chloride, 250 mg; vitamin B_1, 2 mg; vitamin B_6, 3 mg.</p>6<p>Premix provided per kg of complete diet: Cu, 15 mg; Fe, 24 mg; Mn, 31 mg; Zn, 80 mg, I, 0.3 mg; Se, 0.2 mg; vitamin A, 2000 IU; vitamin D_3, 500 IU; vitamin E, 40 IU; vitamin K, 4 mg; vitamin B_12, 15 µg; riboflavin, 2 mg; nicotinic acid, 12 mg; pantothenic acid, 10 mg; vitamin B_1, 2 mg; vitamin B_6, 3 mg.</p>7<p>Formaxol is a blend of encapsulated formic and citric acids and essential oils (Soda Feed Ingredients, Monaco).</p>8<p>Mycosorb® is an organic mycotoxin adsorbent (Alltech, Dunboyne, Co. Meath, Ireland).</p>9<p>Calculated values.</p>10<p>The starter diet was formulated as meal.</p

Selected genera correlating to feed efficiency and performance traits in low and high residual feed intake (RFI) female and male chickens (<i>P</i> < 0.05) across geographical locations and by intestinal site.

<p>Selected genera correlating to feed efficiency and performance traits in low and high residual feed intake (RFI) female and male chickens (<i>P</i> < 0.05) across geographical locations and by intestinal site.</p

Primers and PCR conditions used for the detection of target genes in porcine organ, white blood cell and digesta samples.

1<p>PCR conditions for <i>rubisco</i> F & R included 1 cycle at 94°C for 3 min, 35 cycles of 94°C for 30 s, down to 62°C for 30 s and back up to 72°C for 30 s and 1 cycle of 72°C for 7 min; <i>cry1Ab</i>-2<i> </i>F & R; 1 cycle at 95°C for 3 min, 30 cycles of 95°C for 25 s, down to 62°C for 30 s and back up to 72°C for 45 s and 1 cycle of 72°C for 7 min.</p

Detection of endogenous maize and porcine genes and transgenic <i>cry1Ab</i> gene in the organs and blood of pigs fed Bt and isogenic maize¹.

1<p>Number of samples that tested positive for the gene of interest out of 10 samples analyzed. One sample was tested per pig (<i>n</i> = 10 pigs per treatment).</p>2<p>Dietary treatments; 1) isogenic maize diet for 110 days, 2) Bt maize diet for 110 days, 3) isogenic maize diet for 30 days followed by Bt maize diet for 80 days and 4) Bt maize diet for 30 days followed by isogenic maize diet for 80 days.</p

Venn diagrams and β-diversity plot.

<p>(A) Venn diagram showing the number of shared operational taxonomic units between two geographical locations (L1 and L2); (B) Venn diagram showing the number of shared operational taxonomic units between ileum, ceca and feces; principal coordinate analysis plots of weighted UniFrac analysis colored by (C) intestinal site; D) batch and geographical location; E) RFI ranks; and F) sex. Rarefaction depth of 10,000 sequences per sample removed 9 samples from the dataset; for ileum, n = 31 low RFI chickens and n = 30 high RFI chickens; for ceca, n = 32 low RFI chickens and n = 35 high RFI chickens; for feces, n = 33 low RFI chickens and n = 35 high RFI chickens.</p

Effects of feeding Bt and isogenic maize on immune cell phenotypes of peripheral blood mononuclear cells.

<p>The CD4⁺, CD8⁺, CD4⁺CD8⁺ immune cell populations are given as proportions of CD3⁺ T cells (%). All values are shown ±SE.</p>1<p>Isogenic: isogenic maize diet for 110 days.</p>2<p>Bt: Bt maize diet for 110 days.</p>3<p>Isogenic/Bt: isogenic maize diet for 30 days followed by Bt maize diet for 80 days.</p>4<p>Bt/isogenic: Bt maize diet for 30 days followed by isogenic maize diet for 80 days.</p>ab<p>Within a row means without a common superscript differ by <i>P</i><0.10 by means separation using Tukey-Kramer adjustment for multiple comparisons.</p