Detransformed mean daily catches of <i>G. tachinoides</i> and <i>G. palpalis gambiensis</i> on the blue and black portions of targets with and without adhesive film, expressed as a proportion of unmodified targets (catch index).

<p>Catches on all targets were monitored with electric grids (see text).</p><p>Asterisks indicate that the indices are significantly different from unity:</p><p>**P≤0.01,</p><p>***P≤0.001 following Tukey post hoc test.</p

Detransformed mean daily landings by <i>G. tachinoides</i>, <i>G. palpalis gambiensis</i> and <i>G. morsitans submorsitans</i> on biconical and monoconical traps and on targets.

<p><b>bic</b> biconical trap, <b>mon</b> monoconical trap. The catch index is the proportion of the mean daily landings on the best device per row: n/s not significant (P>0.05) following ANOVA.</p

Daily catch rates of <i>G. tachinoides</i> (top), <i>G. palpalis gambiensis</i> (middle) and <i>G. morsitans submorsitans</i> (bottom) by traps and a target.

<p>The target and the cloth portions of traps were covered with adhesive film to compare the propensity of flies to land on these different devices. Catch rates of such traps were separated into fly catches on the cloth part and those trapped in the cage of the trap. Biconical and monoconical traps not treated with the adhesive film were included as controls. The limits of the boxes indicate the twenty-fifth and seventy-fifth percentiles; the solid line in the box is the median; the capped bars indicate the tenth and the ninetieth percentiles, and data points outside these limits are plotted as circles.</p

Efficiency of biconical and monoconical traps for <i>G. tachinoides</i>, <i>G. palpalis gambiensis</i> and <i>G. morsitans submorsitans</i> calculated from detransformed mean daily catches.

<p><b>bic</b> biconical trap, <b>mon</b> monoconical trap. The catch in the trap without adhesive film are the flies caught in cage of unaltered traps. The catch in the trap with adhesive film are the flies caught on the adhesive film and in the cage.</p

Detransformed mean daily catches of <i>G. tachinoides</i>, <i>G. palpalis gambiensis</i>, and <i>G. morsitans submorsitans</i> with unbaited and POCA-baited trapping devices made of different blue fabrics.

<p>Means followed by the same letter within columns are not significantly different (ANOVA followed by Tukey post hoc test, P = 0.05). See text for details on blue fabrics and POCA bait.</p

Detransformed mean daily catches of <i>G. tachinoides</i> and <i>G. palpalis gambiensis</i> on targets with and without adhesive film, expressed as a proportion of unmodified targets (catch index).

<p>Catches on all targets were monitored with electric grids (see text).</p><p>Asterisks indicate that the indices are significantly different from unity:</p><p>**P≤0.01,</p><p>***P≤0.001 following Tukey post hoc test.</p

Trapping devices used in experiments and their surface areas.

#<p>Only the lower 60 cm of the Tanzanian targets was covered with adhesive film.</p>**<p>Referred to in the text as local target (standard phthalogen blue cotton).</p

Catches^* of <i>G. swynnertoni</i> with unbaited and POCA-baited trapping devices made of different blue materials.

*<p>Detransformed mean daily catches. ANOVA indicates significant differences between treatments within each column; means followed by different letters are significantly different (Tukey post hoc test, P<0.05).</p

Standardizing Visual Control Devices for Tsetse Flies: East African Species <i>Glossina fuscipes fuscipes</i> and <i>Glossina tachinoides</i>

<div><p>Background</p><p>Riverine species of tsetse are responsible for most human African trypanosomiasis (HAT) transmission and are also important vectors of animal trypanosomiasis. This study concerns the development of visual control devices for two such species, <i>Glossina fuscipes fuscipes</i> and <i>Glossina tachinoides</i>, at the eastern limits of their continental range. The goal was to determine the most long-lasting, practical and cost-effective visually attractive device that induces the strongest landing responses in these species for use as insecticide-impregnated tools in vector population suppression.</p><p>Methods and Findings</p><p>Field trials were conducted in different seasons on <i>G. f. fuscipes</i> in Kenya, Ethiopia and the Sudan and on <i>G. tachinoides</i> in Ethiopia to measure the performance of traps and 2D targets of different sizes and colours, with and without chemical baits, at different population densities and under different environmental conditions. Adhesive film was used to enumerate flies at these remote locations to compare trapping efficiencies. The findings show that targets made from black and blue fabrics (either phthalogen or turquoise) covered with adhesive film render them equal to or more efficient than traps at capturing <i>G. f. fuscipes</i> and <i>G. tachinoides</i>. Biconical trap efficiency varied between 25% and 33% for the two species. Smaller 0.25 m×0.25 m phthalogen blue-black targets proved more efficient than the regular 1 m² target for both species, by over six times for <i>Glossina f. fuscipes</i> and two times for <i>G. tachinoides</i> based on catches per m². Overall, targets with a higher edge/surface area ratio were more efficient at capturing flies.</p><p>Conclusions/Significance</p><p>Taking into account practical considerations and fly preferences for edges and colours, we propose a 0.5×0.75 m blue-black target as a simple cost-effective device for management of <i>G. f. fuscipes</i> and <i>G. tachinoides</i>, impregnated with insecticide for control and covered with adhesive film for population sampling.</p></div

Daily catches of <i>G. swynnertoni</i> and <i>G. pallidipes</i> by devices with and without adhesive film.

<p><b>pyramidal</b> pyramidal trap; <b>target</b> blue-black 1 m² target. The target and the cloth portions of traps were covered with adhesive film to compare the propensity of flies to land on the different devices. Catch rates of traps are divided into fly catches on the cloth part and those trapped in the cage of the trap. The limits of the boxes indicate the twenty-fifth and seventy-fifth percentiles, the solid line in the box is the median, the capped bars indicate the tenth and the ninetieth percentiles, and data points outside these limits are plotted as circles.</p