Effect sizes for predictor variables for groups with different levels of engagement in health behaviors.

<p>Effect sizes for predictor variables for groups with different levels of engagement in health behaviors.</p

Variables measured at each time-point.

<p>Variables measured at each time-point.</p

Milieu matters: Evidence that ongoing lifestyle activities influence health behaviors

<div><p>Health behaviors occur within a milieu of lifestyle activities that could conflict with health actions. We examined whether cognitions about, and performance of, other lifestyle activities augment the prediction of health behaviors, and whether these lifestyle factors are especially influential among individuals with low health behavior engagement. Participants (<i>N</i> = 211) completed measures of past behavior and cognitions relating to five health behaviors (e.g., smoking, getting drunk) and 23 lifestyle activities (e.g., reading, socializing), as well as personality variables. All behaviors were measured again at two weeks. Data were analyzed using neural network and cluster analyses. The neural network accurately predicted health behaviors at follow-up (<i>R</i>^<i>2</i> = .71). As hypothesized, lifestyle cognitions and activities independently predicted health behaviors over and above behavior-specific cognitions and previous behavior. Additionally, lifestyle activities and poor self-regulatory capability were more influential among people exhibiting unhealthy behaviors. Considering ongoing lifestyle activities can enhance prediction and understanding of health behaviors and offer new targets for health behavior interventions.</p></div

Funnel Plot of Effect Sizes (d₊) for Body Image.

<p>s.e. = standard error.</p

Moderators of Intervention Effects on Body Image.

<p><i>k</i> = number of effect sizes; <i>d</i>_<i>+</i> = sample-weighted average effect size; <i>95% CI</i> = 95% confidence interval; <i>Q</i> = homogeneity <i>Q</i> statistic; <i>I</i>^<i>2</i> = homogeneity <i>I</i>^<i>2</i> statistic.</p><p>* <i>p</i> < 0.05</p><p>*** <i>p</i> < 0.001.</p><p>Moderators of Intervention Effects on Body Image.</p

Effect of Specific Change Techniques on Body Image.

<p><i>k</i> = number of effect sizes; β = beta from metaregression; <i>SE</i> = standard error; <i>R</i>² = percentage of variance explained by the change technique.</p><p>^a A 0.5 results from a study where the sample size for the control condition was halved (to accommodate comparison with two experimental conditions/interventions) and where the change technique was used in one intervention but not the other.</p><p>* <i>p</i> < 0.05</p><p>** <i>p</i> < 0.01</p><p>*** <i>p</i> < 0.001.</p><p>Effect of Specific Change Techniques on Body Image.</p

Flow of Studies through the Current Meta-Analysis.

<p>Flow of Studies through the Current Meta-Analysis.</p

Overall Effect of Interventions on Outcomes.

<p><i>k</i> = number of effect sizes; <i>d</i>_<i>+</i> = sample-weighted average effect size; <i>95% CI</i> = 95% confidence interval; <i>Q</i> = homogeneity <i>Q</i> statistic; <i>I</i>^<i>2</i> = homogeneity <i>I</i>^<i>2</i> statistic.</p><p>*** <i>p</i> < 0.001.</p><p>Overall Effect of Interventions on Outcomes.</p

Effect Sizes for Studies Included in the Meta-Analysis.

<p><i>N</i>_c = Number of participants in the control condition; <i>N</i>_<i>e</i> = Number of participants in the experimental condition; <i>d</i>₊ = sample-weighted average effect size; <i>95% CI</i> = 95% confidence interval.</p><p>^a Females.</p><p>^b Males.</p><p>^c Dance aerobics.</p><p>^d Step aerobics.</p><p>^e Video Intervention 1.</p><p>^f Video Intervention 2.</p><p>^g Cognitive-behavioural therapy (CBT).</p><p>^h Fitness training intervention.</p><p>ⁱ Gratitude diaries.</p><p>^j Monitoring and restructuring.</p><p>^k High-risk women.</p><p>^l Low-risk women.</p><p>^m 3^rd and 4^th grade students.</p><p>ⁿ 5^th and 6^th grade students.</p><p>^o Cycling.</p><p>^p Running.</p><p>^q Swimming.</p><p>^r Face-to-face intervention.</p><p>^s Internet intervention.</p><p>^t Feminist intervention.</p><p>^u Psychoeducation intervention.</p><p>^v Rosen, Orosan, & Reiter [<a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0139177#pone.0139177.ref076" target="_blank">76</a>].</p><p>^w Rosen, Reiter, & Orosan [<a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0139177#pone.0139177.ref077" target="_blank">77</a>].</p><p>^x Cognitive therapy.</p><p>^y To accommodate testing for two experimental conditions, the sample size of the control group has been divided by two.</p><p>Measures of body image are coded as follows: 1 = Adult Body Satisfaction Questionnaire (ABSQ, [<a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0139177#pone.0139177.ref078" target="_blank">78</a>]): Satisfaction with Physical Appearance Subscale; 2 = Body Attitudes Questionnaire (BAQ, [<a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0139177#pone.0139177.ref079" target="_blank">79</a>]); 3 = Body Appreciation Scale (BAS, [<a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0139177#pone.0139177.ref080" target="_blank">80</a>]); 4 = Body Checking Questionnaire (BCQ, [<a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0139177#pone.0139177.ref081" target="_blank">81</a>]); 5 = Body Esteem Scale (BES, [<a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0139177#pone.0139177.ref082" target="_blank">82</a>]); 6 = BES [<a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0139177#pone.0139177.ref082" target="_blank">82</a>]: Sexual Attractiveness Subscale; 7 = Body Esteem Scale for Adolescents and Adults (BES, [<a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0139177#pone.0139177.ref083" target="_blank">83</a>]): Appearance Body Esteem Subscale; 8 = BES [<a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0139177#pone.0139177.ref083" target="_blank">83</a>]: Weight Body Esteem Subscale; 9 = Body Esteem Scale for Children [<a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0139177#pone.0139177.ref084" target="_blank">84</a>]; 10 = Body Image Avoidance Questionnaire (BIAQ, [<a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0139177#pone.0139177.ref085" target="_blank">85</a>]); 11 = Body Image Disturbance Questionnaire (BIDQ, [<a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0139177#pone.0139177.ref086" target="_blank">86</a>]); 12 = Body Image States Scale (BISS, [<a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0139177#pone.0139177.ref087" target="_blank">87</a>]); 13 = Body Parts Dissatisfaction Scale (BPDS, [<a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0139177#pone.0139177.ref088" target="_blank">88</a>]): Number of Body Parts Wished Smaller; 14 = BPDS [<a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0139177#pone.0139177.ref088" target="_blank">88</a>]: Number of Body Parts with Which Content; 15 = Body Parts Satisfaction Scale (BPSS, [<a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0139177#pone.0139177.ref089" target="_blank">89</a>]): Body Parts Satisfaction Subscale; 16 = BPSS [<a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0139177#pone.0139177.ref089" target="_blank">89</a>]: Overall Appearance Satisfaction Subscale; 17 = Body Satisfaction and Body Change Inventory (BSBCI, [<a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0139177#pone.0139177.ref090" target="_blank">90</a>]): Body Satisfaction Subscale; 18 = Body Shape Questionnaire (BSQ, [<a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0139177#pone.0139177.ref091" target="_blank">91</a>]); 19 = Body Shape Questionnaire- Short Form (BSQ-SF, [<a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0139177#pone.0139177.ref092" target="_blank">92</a>]); 20 = Body-Self Relations Questionnaire (BSRQ, [<a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0139177#pone.0139177.ref093" target="_blank">93</a>]): Appearance Evaluation Subscale; 21 = Berscheid, Walster, and Bohrnstedt Body Image Questionnaire [<a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0139177#pone.0139177.ref089" target="_blank">89</a>]; 22 = Contour Drawing Rating Scale (CDRS, [<a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0139177#pone.0139177.ref094" target="_blank">94</a>]); 23 = Child and Youth Physical Self-Perception Profile (CY-PSPP, [<a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0139177#pone.0139177.ref095" target="_blank">95</a>]): Body Attractiveness Subscale; 24 = Eating Disorders Inventory–II (EDI-II, [<a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0139177#pone.0139177.ref096" target="_blank">96</a>]): Body Dissatisfaction Subscale; 25 = Figure Rating Scale (FRS, [<a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0139177#pone.0139177.ref097" target="_blank">97</a>]); 26 = Multidimensional Body-Self Relations Questionnaire (MBSRQ, [<a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0139177#pone.0139177.ref098" target="_blank">98</a>]): Appearance Evaluation Subscale; 27 = MBSRQ [<a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0139177#pone.0139177.ref098" target="_blank">98</a>]: Body Areas Satisfaction Subscale; 28 = Physical Appearance State and Trait Anxiety Scale (PASTAS, [<a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0139177#pone.0139177.ref099" target="_blank">99</a>]: State Nonweight Subscale; 29 = PASTAS [<a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0139177#pone.0139177.ref099" target="_blank">99</a>]: State Weight Subscale; 30 = PASTAS [<a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0139177#pone.0139177.ref099" target="_blank">99</a>]: Trait Weight Subscale; 31 = Marsh Physical Self-Description Questionnaire (PSDQ, [<a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0139177#pone.0139177.ref100" target="_blank">100</a>]); 32 = Physical Self-Perceptions-Inventory (PSPP, [<a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0139177#pone.0139177.ref101" target="_blank">101</a>]): Bodily Attractiveness Subscale; 33 = Physical Self-Concept Scale (PSS, [<a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0139177#pone.0139177.ref102" target="_blank">102</a>]): Perception of Appreciation of Physical Appearance Subscale; 34 = PSS [<a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0139177#pone.0139177.ref102" target="_blank">102</a>]: Perception of Physical Appearance Subscale; 35 = Satisfaction with Body Parts Scale (SBPS, [<a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0139177#pone.0139177.ref089" target="_blank">89</a>]); 36 = Self-Report Behavioral Avoidance Questionnaire [<a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0139177#pone.0139177.ref103" target="_blank">103</a>]; 37 = Self-reported current weight = self-reported ideal weight; 38 = Situational Inventory of Body Image Dysphoria–Short Form (SIBID-S, [<a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0139177#pone.0139177.ref104" target="_blank">104</a>]); 39 = Social Physique Anxiety Scale (SPAS, [<a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0139177#pone.0139177.ref105" target="_blank">105</a>]); 40 = Self-Perception Profile for Adolescents [<a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0139177#pone.0139177.ref106" target="_blank">106</a>]: Physical Appearance Subscale; 41 = State Self-Esteem Scale (SSES, [<a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0139177#pone.0139177.ref107" target="_blank">107</a>]): Appearance Subscale; 42 = Visual Analogue Scales (VAS) to assess body satisfaction; 43 = VAS to assess feelings of beauty; 44 = VAS to assess muscle dissatisfaction [<a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0139177#pone.0139177.ref108" target="_blank">108</a>]; 45 = VAS to assess weight dissatisfaction [<a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0139177#pone.0139177.ref108" target="_blank">108</a>].</p><p>Measures of beauty ideal internalisation are coded as follows: 1 = Questions about desire to look like TV and pop stars; 2 = Sociocultural Attitudes Toward Appearance Questionnaire (SATAQ, [<a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0139177#pone.0139177.ref109" target="_blank">109</a>]): Internalization of the Thin Ideal Subscale; 3 = Sociocultural Attitudes Toward Appearance Questionnaire-III (SATAQ-III, [<a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0139177#pone.0139177.ref110" target="_blank">110</a>]): General Internalization Subscale.</p><p>Measures of social comparison tendencies are coded as follows: 1 = Body Comparisons Scale (BCS, [<a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0139177#pone.0139177.ref111" target="_blank">111</a>]); 2 = Physical Appearance Beliefs Test (PABT, [<a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0139177#pone.0139177.ref112" target="_blank">112</a>]): Social Comparisons Subscale; 3 = Physical Appearance Comparison Scale (PACS, [<a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0139177#pone.0139177.ref113" target="_blank">113</a>]).</p><p>Effect Sizes for Studies Included in the Meta-Analysis.</p

Means, standard deviations and correlations among study variables.

<p>Means, standard deviations and correlations among study variables.</p