Wildlife Population Monitoring Study among Endangered Animals at Protected Areas in Nepal

Nepal is a small country located in South Asia which is geographically highly diverse and fairly rich in its variety of endangered wild animals. Conservation and monitoring of endangered wildlife is great challenging task in developing country like Nepal. Different body parts of wild animals are used as raw material for making pharmaceutical products, cosmetic, and other purpose; hence their value increased in the international market, as a result poaching and trading activities of endangered wild animals has been increased rapidly at protected areas in Nepal. This review will provide detailed information about different population monitoring techniques being applied for different endangered wild animals in protected areas of Nepal. Techniques like camera trapping, radio collar, noninvasive methods, mobile application, GPS, GIS, direct head count, etc. are commonly used for monitoring wildlife in Nepal. Since conservation of endangered wildlife species has become very much crucial, more advance technologies and social network analysis will be also used to determine the monitoring of wild animals at protected areas in Nepal

Regional variation in pig farmer awareness and actions regarding Japanese encephalitis in Nepal : implications for public health education

The objective was to explore regional variations in farmer awareness and actions towards Japanese Encephalitis (JE) in Nepal; the association of awareness and actions with farm and farmer variables; and the implications for public health education and extension services. Social factors such as literacy, gender, and cultural practices were associated with farmer attitudes, knowledge and practices for JE control. The low uptake of vaccine and lack of infrastructure or financial capacity to house pigs adequately suggest that farmer personal protection should be a priority for education. JE is a mosquito-borne zoonotic disease with pigs as the amplifying hosts

Spatio-temporal epidemiology of Japanese encephalitis in Nepal, 2007-2015.

Japanese encephalitis (JE) is a major public health problem in Nepal. For the effective management and surveillance of JE, a clear understanding of its epidemiology is essential. Therefore, we conducted descriptive and spatial analyses to understand the spatio-temporal distribution of JE in human in Nepal. From 2007 to 2015, 1,823 JE cases were reported with a cumulative mean incidence of 0.735/100,000 population and a case fatality rate of 6.6%. The death rate in the up-to-24 years of age group was 74%. The JE cases were most commonly reported in the age group of 1-14 years. There is a strong seasonal pattern of JE occurrence in Nepal which peaked in August and declined by October each year, which corresponds to the monsoon season. The JE cases were reported in 63 of 75 districts (84%), expanding in the mountain and hill regions. There was a strong clustering of JE incidence in the south-western and south-eastern Terai region, which is endemic for JE. Therefore, the JE surveillance system should be improved to better understand the drivers of disease expansion in Nepal for instituting a control program

Prevalence of non-typhoidal Salmonella and risk factors on poultry farms in Chitwan, Nepal

Background and Aim: Poultry is becoming an increasingly important source of protein in the Nepalese diet. The Chitwan region of Nepal is the hub of the emerging poultry industry. Little is known about the prevalence of non-typhoidal Salmonella (NTS) on poultry farms or the role of farm management practices that may contribute to the presence of NTS on farms. The role of poultry in the transmission of Salmonella enterica to humans is also poorly defined. This descriptive study seeks establish baseline data through estimation of the prevalence of NTS on broiler and layer operations in various farms of the Chitwan district of Nepal. Materials and Methods: Based on district documents on poultry production and meat marketing, a purposive sampling of 18 commercial poultry farms comprising ten broilers farms and eight layers farms was conducted. Environmental samples including water, litter, feces, feed, farm, and eggshell swabs were randomly collected from each farm. Samples were cultured and tested for the presence of NTS; positives were serotyped, and antimicrobial susceptibility determined. A comprehensive farm and practice questionnaire was administered to each farm manager. Results: The farm level point prevalence rate was 55% (10 of 18 farms) for S. enterica. Of the total 288 farm environmental samples collected, 26 samples (9%) were positive. The rate of isolation varied according to the origin of samples: Water (27.5%), feces (10.6%), litter (8.6%), farm swabs (5%), feed (1.8%), and eggshells (0%). Farm management variables/risk factors are summarized and categorized as non-modifiable and modifiable for analysis. Broiler operations were more likely to be positive than layer operations as were poultry houses with two or less open sides. All-in/all-out management style was found to be protective. Due to the small sample size (18 farms), no associations reached statistical significance. Conclusion: Based on environmental sampling results, NTS is highly prevalent on the poultry farms in the Chitwan district of Nepal. Certain risk factors are associated with finding NTS on farms. Our findings are generally in agreement with other studies in similar countries with rapidly emerging poultry industries. The identification of risk factors provides owners, technicians, and veterinarians with some guidance to help reduce the prevalence of NTS on farms. This baseline data are critical to understanding the epidemiology of zoonotic strain of NTS in the region and are necessary for the design of future studies and mitigation plans and underlines the need for a one-health approach to protect public health-related to Salmonella spp. from poultry farms

Antimicrobial-resistant non-typhoidal Salmonella enterica prevalence among poultry farms and slaughterhouses in Chitwan, Nepal

Background and Aim: Antibiotic-resistant infections are one of the leading threats to public health globally. Indiscriminate use of antibiotics in food animal production is an important driver of resistance, particularly among foodborne pathogens such as non-typhoidal Salmonella enterica (NTS). While there has been extensive research on antimicrobial-resistant (AMR) S. enterica in India and China, there have been few studies in countries in South Asia, including Nepal. This is particularly important with the rise of commercial poultry farming in Nepal as a means of economic development and nutritional subsistence. This descriptive study seeks to identify the prevalence and resistance patterns of NTS serotypes focusing on Chitwan, Nepal's leading poultry producing district. Materials and Methods: A mixture of purposive and judgment sampling of 18 poultry farms and 20 slaughterhouses representing a broad geographic distribution across multiple municipalities in Chitwan was conducted in May 2019. Environmental samples taken from poultry farms included: Water, litter, feces, feed, farm swabs, and eggshell swabs. Biological samples taken from nearby slaughterhouses included: Muscle, heart, liver, skin, cecum, crop, and spleen. Samples were cultured and tested for the presence of NTS. Positive isolates were serotyped and tested for antimicrobial susceptibility to seven antibiotics known to be important to both human and animal health regionally. Farm practices were also characterized through a survey, the results of which are detailed in the accompanying paper. Results: Out of 708 samples (288 environmental and 420 biological), 103 (15%) tested positive for NTS (9% of environmental; n=26, 18% of biological; n=77). The percentage of positive environmental and biological samples varied by source. Environmental sample positive rates were water (27.5%), feces (10.6%), litter (8.6%), farm swabs (5%), feed (1.8%), and eggshells (0%). Biological sample positive rates were skin (28%), heart (23%), crop (20%), muscle (15%), liver (15%), spleen (15%), and cecum (12%). Out of 103 positive S. enterica isolates, 48.5% were identified as Salmonella Typhimurium, 35% Salmonella Enteritidis, 7.8% Salmonella Gallinarum, 4.9% Salmonella Virchow, and 3.9% were Salmonella Agona. Of the 103 positive isolates, 80 (78%) were resistant to at least one antibiotic, and 21 (20%) were multidrug-resistant (MDR). Conclusion: NTS is highly prevalent among Chitwan's growing poultry industry with higher rates of positivity found in slaughterhouse samples compared with environmental samples from farms. In addition, a high rate of AMR (78%) was revealed, and an extremely concerning number of those were shown to be MDR (20%). This baseline data has important implications for poultry production and consumption in the region. Further research will elucidate the extent to which this contamination and drug resistance is impacting the health of the local population and help inform treatment and management strategies. Note: The characterization of the poultry industry and practices that might be linked to NTS contamination in the Chitwan district are detailed in the previous paper in this series (www.veterinaryworld.org/Vol.14/February-2021/14.pdf)

Comparative spatial dynamics of Japanese encephalitis and acute encephalitis syndrome in Nepal

Geographical patterns can provide important clues about disease etiology. Infectious diseases, such as Japanese Encephalitis (JE), are driven by ecological and social processes which result in heterogeneous distribution of disease risk. Pattern indices describing the amount of irrigated land edge density and the degree of landscape mixing for irrigated areas were positively associated with (JE) and acute encephalitis syndrome (AES) risk, while fragmented forest measured by the number of forest patches were negatively associated with AES and JE. These landscape variables highlight the importance of integrating healthy land management policies and disease prevention strategies in both rural and urban-fringe developing areas

Detection of virus-neutralising antibodies and associated factors against rabies in the vaccinated household dogs of Kathmandu Valley, Nepal.

BackgroundRabies is a vaccine-preventable neglected tropical viral zoonosis. It occurs worldwide, creating a very heavy burden in many developing countries, including Nepal. Dogs are the principle vector for the transmission of this disease in urban areas. Vaccination is the most important preventive measure in areas where dogs are the principle source of infection. This study was conducted with the aim of detecting virus-neutralising antibodies and associated factors against rabies in vaccinated household dogs of Kathmandu valley.MethodsBlood samples were collected from 110 vaccinated pet dogs in Kathmandu, Bhaktapur, and Lalitpur districts of Nepal. The samples were taken to the laboratory of the National Zoonosis and Food Hygiene Research Center where serum was separated. An indirect immune-enzymatic assay (PlateliaTM Rabies II kit ad usum Veterinarium, Biorad, China) was used for the detection of rabies virus anti-glycoprotein antibodies in the dog serum samples following the manufacturer's recommendations and instructions. Optical density values for unknown samples were compared with the positive sera titers in quantification tests obtained after a direct reading on the standard curve. Results were expressed as equivalent units per ml (EU/ml).FindingsOf the total samples, 89.09% exceeded the required seroconversion level (≥ 0.5 EU/ml); another 9.09% did not reach the seroconversion level (0.125-0.5 EU/ml); and 1.81% had undetectable seroconversion levels (InterpretationVaccination is the most effective measure for prevention and control of rabies. The locally manufactured brand of vaccine, which is available in Nepal, is potent enough to generate a sufficient amount of protective antibodies, equal to international brands

Total JE cases and case fatality rate in human in Nepal (2007–2015).

<p>Total JE cases and case fatality rate in human in Nepal (2007–2015).</p

Age distribution of JE cases in human in Nepal (2007–2015).

<p>Age distribution of JE cases in human in Nepal (2007–2015).</p

Spatio-temporal Epidemiology of JE in Nepal: 2007-2015

<div>Japanese encephalitis (JE) is a major public health problem in Nepal. For the effective management and surveillance of JE, a clear understanding of its epidemiology is essential. Therefore, we conducted descriptive and spatial analyses to understand the spatio-temporal distribution of JE in human in Nepal.<br></div