33 research outputs found

    In the Vanguard of History -the Beijing Democracy Wall Movement 1978-1981 and Social Mobilisation of Former Red Guard Dissent

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    The work employs the new social movement approach to explain and analyse theways the Beijing Democracy Wall Movement 1978-81 constructed itself as a socialactor and thereby justified itself and the reforms it proposed. As the author argues,the approach provides a fruitful conceptual framework to analyse the emergence andbehaviour of the Democracy Wall Movement as a social movement. The authorargues that earlier Western research (there is no mainland Chinese research on themovement to speak of) has neglected the movement-side of the DemocracyMovement and concentrated too much on the issues of the proposed forms ofdemocracy and human rights in the movement’s argumentation. The focus hascaused confusions both in the historical nature of the Democracy Movement, theprotest it presented and the individual activists, which the new social movementapproach helps to clarify.In the thesis the author elaborates the following findings: First of all, the DemocracyWall Movement was connected to the Cultural Revolution which preceded it notonly as a negation of its policies, but in a more complicated manner through the socalled new ‘trends of thought’ (xin sichao) or the ‘theory of a bureaucratic class’ thatthe radical Red Guards developed during the Cultural Revolution. The thinking wentthrough notable transformation in the late Cultural Revolution and the DemocracyWall Movement, but the eradication of the structural causes of a bureaucratic classremained the theoretical rationale of democratic reforms for the DemocracyMovement and served as the basis of the movement’s social analysis.Second of all, the Democracy Movement activists offered their debates ondemocratic reforms as their contribution to Marxism and a way to solve the problemof political superstructure obstructing the realisation of socialism and, finally,communism. Democratic institutions were offered as the necessary condition ofrealising socialism and a great majority of the theoretical articles and essays in themovement’s journals should be understand as voices in a debate to this end. Asizable part of the movement activists returned to Marxist classics and the ParisCommune type of democratic institutions in their proposals. Western notions ofliberal democracy and human rights also attracted wide attention, but were mostlyused eclectically as providing structural models for socialist democracy.Furthermore, the activists founded their defence of these institutions througharguments that they were the historical progressive heritage from earlierdevelopmental phases – a notably Marxist view of world history. Only a smallminority of the activists used anti-Marxist arguments when defence of democracy.Third, the Democracy Movement justified itself through presenting it as ahistorically progressive and necessary manifestation of the people’s interests and itsactivists as the ‘awoken generation’ who had the moral stamina, courage and high political awareness to lead the people as the vanguard in their struggle against the‘feudal fascist dictatorship’ of Party bureaucrats. The Communist Party, however,did not come under criticism as an institution except from a small minority of theMovement. To define and defend their credentials the activists reconstructed anarrative of the Cultural Revolution as the period, whence they had grown topolitical maturity and learned to see through the Maoist doctrines the Party Left usedas deception to hide its naked lust for power and privilege. The DemocracyMovement was portrayed as the movement of the political aware youth assuming thevanguard position in revolution. Connected to this also the identities of socialistcitizens using their legal rights and enlighteners of the people were used to justify themovement. The way the collective and individual activist identities were framedhelped to keep the otherwise fractured and loose movement together.The thesis brings new light to the relations between the Cultural Revolution and theChinese Democracy Movement as well as post-Mao social protest in China. It showsthat at least for the Democracy Wall Movement there was more continuity with theCultural Revolution and discontinuity with the later phases of the DemocracyMovement than earlier has been suggested. It also shows that native Marxist ideas ofdemocracy and communist lore on protest had substantial influence on constructingthe Democracy Wall Movement as a legitimate social actor, more than the liberalnotions of democracy and human rights, although also they played their role.Keywords: Democracy Wall Movement, Protest, Social Movement, CulturalRevolution, China, Collective Identity, Red Guards</p

    Suhtautuminen Kiinaan ennakkoluulojen vankina?

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    Researching disasters and disaster management in China: Persistent questions and emerging trends

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    This article offers an introduction to the China Information’s special issue on disasters anddisaster management. It is argued here that studying disasters and disaster managementshould not only improve our understanding of them as social phenomena and therebyincrease our ability to manage disasters better, but also that disasters offer uniquewindows for researchers to study Chinese society and explain social and politicalchanges therein. The article further argues that although research in natural disasters inChina has developed rapidly both in terms of disciplinary approaches and topics, suchresearch has still to overcome its narrow event-based nature and embrace more crossdisciplinaryand comparative approaches geographically and historically, and disasterstudies should investigate different types of disasters.</p

    Kiina astumassa uudelle aikakaudelle?

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    Kiinan kommunistisen puolueen (KKP) keskuskomitea julkaisi marraskuun alun vuosikokouksessaan virallisen tulkinnan puolueen lĂ€hihistoriasta. Muodollisesti tĂ€lle antoi tilaisuuden meneillÀÀn oleva puolueen 100-vuotisjuhlavuosi, mutta taustalla on paljon syvempiĂ€ tekijöitĂ€ kuin vain juhlatunnelma. PÀÀtös ei itseasiassa juurikaan kĂ€sitellyt aikaisempaa historiaa, vaan keskittyi viimeisimpÀÀn vuosikymmeneen. Siten pÀÀtöksen voi lukea pÀÀsihteeri Xi Jinpingin valtakauden ylistĂ€vĂ€ksi tilinpÀÀtökseksi. Puolueen aikaisempien historiaansa koskeneiden virallisten pÀÀtösten merkitys kertoo myös tĂ€mĂ€nkertaisen pÀÀtöksen merkityksestĂ€. Vuonna 1945 puhemies Mao Zedong linjasi oikean tulkinnan tuohon hetkeen asti ulottuneesta puolueen historiasta. HĂ€n itse oli noussut puolueen johtoon vuonna 1943 pitkĂ€n valtakamppailun jĂ€lkeen. Vuoden 1945 pÀÀtöksellĂ€ Mao seurasi Stalinin antamaa esimerkkiĂ€ vuoden 1938 Neuvostoliiton kommunistisen puolueen historiasta ja kirjoitutti pÀÀtöksellĂ€ KKP:n lĂ€hihistorian siten, ettĂ€ se tuki hĂ€nen valta-asemaansa ja tuomitsi hĂ€nen poliittiset vihollisensa ”linjavirheistĂ€â€. PÀÀtös lujitti Maon aseman KKP:n johdossa seuraavaksi 31 vuodeksi.Seuraavaan virallisen pÀÀtöksen historiastaan KKP tekikin vasta Maon kuoleman jĂ€lkeen vuonna 1981. Lyhyen valtataistelun jĂ€lkeen Deng Xiaoping oli tuolloin noussut johtavaan asemaan puolueessa ja vuoden 1981 pÀÀtös olikin Maon kauden tilinpÀÀtös, joka kirjoitettiin tavalla, joka tuki Dengin aloittamaa talouden uudistuspolitiikkaa, mutta samalla esti liian kĂ€rkevĂ€n Maoon kohdistuvan kritiikin. TĂ€llainen kritiikki olisi nopeasti kohdistunut koko puolueeseen, olihan se vienyt Kiinan kansan toistuviin katastrofeihin Maon johdolla. Vuoden 1981 pÀÀtös oli siten tĂ€rkeĂ€ dokumentti Dengin valta-aseman ja hĂ€nen ajamiensa talousuudistusten oikeuttamisessa.Vuonna 2021 tuli kuluneeksi 40 vuotta viimeisimmĂ€stĂ€ puoluehistoriaa koskevasta pÀÀtöksestĂ€. Kiinan talous on tĂ€nĂ€ aikana lĂ€pikĂ€ynyt suuren murroksen ja maa on noussut suurvaltaluokkaan. Kuten uusin pÀÀtös toteaa, kehitys on osoittanut uudistuspolitiikan oikeellisuuden. PÀÀtös kuitenkin ilmoitti uuden aikakauden alkaneen. Kiina on nyt siirtynyt uuden sosialismin aikakauteen kiinalaisin erityispiirtein pÀÀsihteeri Xi Jinpingin johdolla. TĂ€rkein piirre uudessa aikakaudessa onkin se, ettĂ€ kyseessĂ€ Xi Jinpingin aikakausi. Xin asema sementoidaan pÀÀtöksessĂ€ monin tavoin. Uudella aikaudella puoluetta johtaa Xin ajattelu ja hĂ€nen johtajuutensa puolueen ”ytimenĂ€â€ todetaan vĂ€lttĂ€mĂ€ttömĂ€ksi. Kaikki tĂ€mĂ€ viittaa siihen, ettĂ€ kun puolue jĂ€rjestÀÀ 20. puoluekokouksensa ensi vuoden syksyllĂ€, Xi tulee jollain tavalla jatkamaan puolueen johtajana.PÀÀtöksen myötĂ€ kiinalainen sosialismi on selvĂ€sti saamassa toisenlaisen ja monen mielestĂ€ konkreettisemman sisĂ€llön kuin sillĂ€ oli uudistuskaudella, jolloin se tuli merkitsemÀÀn lĂ€hinnĂ€ talouskasvua ja suuria valtionyrityksiĂ€. HistoriapÀÀtökseksi uusin pÀÀtös kĂ€sitteleekin paljon tulevaa. PÀÀtös linjaa muun muassa, ettĂ€ vaikka markkinoita ei hylĂ€tĂ€, tulevalla uudella kaudella valtion rooli tulee korostumaan entisestÀÀn taloudessa ja yhteiskunnassa, tuloeroja tullaan kaventamaan ja yksityinen sektori otetaan valtion tiukempaan ohjaukseen. Avoin ulkomaankauppa tulee jatkumaan, mutta sekin enemmĂ€n valtion ohjaamana. Kun Kiina vuonna 2050 on saavuttanut kehitystavoitteensa, on se ”mahtava ja moderni sosialistinen maa”, ”yksi globaaleista johtajista” ja saavuttanut kansalaisten ”yhteisen vaurauden”.MeidĂ€n kannaltamme historiapÀÀtös kertoo siitĂ€, miten kommunistinen puolue pyrkii lĂ€hitulevaisuudessa kehittĂ€mÀÀn jĂ€ttilĂ€isvaltiotaan. Ideologian merkitys pÀÀtöksenteossa tulee korostumaan ja sen mukaisesti valtion rooli tulee korostumaan taloudessa. Myös ulkomaalaisten yritysten toimintaan Kiinassa tulee kohdistumaan laajempaa poliittista harkintaa ja rajoituksia. Yritykset, jotka pysyvĂ€t jotenkin liittĂ€mÀÀn tarinansa uuden sosialismin narratiiviin voivat saada kilpailuetua. Joka tapauksessa yksityiseen sektoriin tulee kohdistumaan yhĂ€ enemmĂ€n sÀÀtelyĂ€. EsimerkkejĂ€ tĂ€stĂ€ on jo paljon rakennussektorista kiinalaisiin IT-jĂ€tteihin, jotka kaikki ovat kokeneet huomattavan kurinpalautuksen kuluvan vuoden aikana. Ulkopolitiikassa Kiina jatkaa nousuaan. Se tarjoaa apuaan ja omaa kehitysmalliansa kehittyville maille, joiden tukea se hakee lĂ€nttĂ€ vastaan. LĂ€nnelle tĂ€mĂ€ ideologisemman ja itsevarmemman Kiinan nousu heittÀÀ siten selvĂ€n haasteen. </p

    Helping friends in need or helping oneself? The case of China’s international disaster management policy in the 2010s

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    Abstract This article analyzes how the People’s Republic of China engages in international disaster management (IDM). The paper sets out to answer especially the question of how these activities benefit its own disaster management capabilities. In order to answer the question, the study analyzed public archival materials of news reports concerning China’s bilateral and multilateral IDM activities between May 2013 and May 2018, retrieved from the China National Commission for Disaster Reduction’s online database. This data was analyzed quantitatively and qualitatively. The article argues that Chinese IDM engagements are active and have a global reach, but are at the same time selective in their nature. The PRC uses IDM to position itself as a “leading developing country” through its active IDM engagements with other developing countries, while at the same time also seeking to benefit from developed countries’ disaster management know-how and accepting humanitarian aid only in case of large natural disasters.</p

    Lyhyt johdatus Kiinan historiaan

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    Lyhyt johdatus Kiinan historiaan tarjoaa lukijalle yleisesityksen yhden maailman vanhimman sivilisaation historiasta. Teos kÀy lÀpi Kiinan historian esihistoriasta nykyaikaan keskittyen suuriin kehityslinjoihin ja vaiheisiin sekÀ jÀttilÀismaan yhteiskunnan ja politiikan muutoksiin. Kirja on tarkoitettu Kiinan historian opintoja aloittaville opiskelijoille ja kaikille Kiinan menneisyydestÀ kiinnostuneille. </p

    Routledge Handbook of Revolutionary China

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    The Great Leap Forward (GLF) 1958–61 was meant to be the real liberation. The ultimate upheaval that would deliver freedom from the servitude of hunger, want and poverty for all Chinese. China, one of the poorest and least developed countries in the world, was to undergo a gigantic transformation which was to catapult her into true communism within three years, fulfilling Mao’s “messianic mission” of the complete remaking of Chinese society and economy, the creation of the New Man and, ultimately, a New World.1As we know, the Great Leap ended in disaster. What Anthony Garnaut calls a “loose consensus” of GLF research today concludes that the Great Leap caused a famine which claimed the lives of between 24 and 30 million Chinese.2 This number of casualties was greater than that caused by all the fighting in the revolutionary struggle before 1949 or by any natural disaster in Chinese history. With the 50-year moratorium on many archival records from the period finally ending at the turn of the 2010s, the famine has attracted growing attention in recent scholarship. Paradoxically, however, this improved access to sources has actually contributed to deepening divisions, not convergence, in research. Therefore, we are currently witnessing the development of different kinds of revisionist lines of argumentation in academic debates around the Great Leap Forward famine.This writer shares the loose consensus of current mainstream research: a severe famine causing the death up to 30 million Chinese took place in mainland China 1959–61 and the famine was largely man-made, caused by the Great Leap policies and the way the Maoist regime reacted to the famine. However, this chapter does not try to explain the causes of the famine or address the issue of culpability as such. Instead, it outlines the development of GLF famine studies and tries to put revisionism into historical perspective by comparing it with the little-studied way that official propaganda managed popular sentiments throughout the campaign. It is argued here that in many ways denialist revisionism signifies a return to the obfuscation of facts which propaganda used during the famine.</p

    Kiinan media harppoo maailmalle

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    Finnish Economic Relations with China -Trends and Risks

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    Kiinan kÀÀnnös totalitaariseen yksinvaltaan?

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    TĂ€mĂ€ artikkeli pohtii Kiinan poliittisen jĂ€rjestelmĂ€tyypin paluuta kohti klassista totalitarismia ja sitĂ€, miten tĂ€mĂ€ kehitys on liittynyt puolueen pÀÀsihteerin Xi Jinpingin aseman vahvistumiseen. Muutos on ollut niin huomattava, ettĂ€ Kiinan kohdalla on aiheellista puhua aikaisemman oligarkian muutoksesta yksinvallaksi. Samalla myös valtion ja yhteiskunnan vĂ€liset suhteet ovat muuttuneet valtion ottaessa Kiinan yhteiskunnan takaisin tiukempaan kontrolliin. Artikkeli kĂ€y lĂ€pi tĂ€mĂ€n prosessin lĂ€hihistorian ja pohtii sitĂ€, miten muutos tulisi ymmĂ€rtÀÀ eri jĂ€rjestelmĂ€tyyppien valossa. Artikkeli vĂ€ittÀÀ, ettĂ€ Kiinassa on meneillÀÀn oligarkian mureneminen ja yksinvallan lujittuminen tavalla, joka tuo yhĂ€ enemmĂ€n esiin totalitaarisen jĂ€rjestelmĂ€n klassisia piirteitĂ€ pitkĂ€n jĂ€lkitotalitarismia muistuttaneen vaiheen jĂ€lkeen.Abstract in EnglishThis article analyses the ongoing totalitarian turn in China and the way this development is closely connected to the consolidation of Xi Jinping’s personal position in power. At the same time, state-society relations also undergone a change. The article goes through this process in China’s recent history and puts forth an analytical framework whereby the regime change can be conceptualized. It is argued in the article that what we are witnessing in China today is the breakdown of the previous oligarchical order and (re)introduction of one-man rule in a way that brings increasingly more features of classical totalitarianism to state-society relations after the previous period that resembled more post-totalitarianism.</p
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