Is manure an alternative to topsoil in road embankment restoration?

<div><p>One of the main steps in road and railway embankment restoration is the spreading of previously removed topsoil, which provides an input of seeds, organic matter and microorganisms and encourages the establishment of a vegetation cover, essential to stabilise the embankment and blend it with the landscape. However, topsoil is a scarce resource, prompting the search for economic alternatives with similar results. The present study compares the results of spreading topsoil with an organic amendment (manure) for the soil's physico-chemical properties, erosion resistance and microbial activity, floristic richness and composition, and bare soil cover. For this purpose, experimental plots with three treatments (Control, Topsoil and Manure) were maintained on a recently built embankment in Central Spain for 20 months. Manure was found to be an effective alternative to topsoil for the improvement of soil fertility (organic matter content and total nitrogen). The two types of organic amendment produced similar reductions in bare soil cover and erosion rates. However, plots with topsoil showed greater soil respiration and species richness and a different floristic composition in comparison to those treated with manure, which was closer to control plots. These results suggest that manure can be used to replace topsoil to enhance embankment stability during the early stages of restoration. However, if the aim of the restoration process is to promote plant diversity, topsoil is recommended.</p></div

Appendix D. Structural equation modeling: detailed methods.

Structural equation modeling: detailed methods

Appendix C. Assessing soil microbial functional diversity: detailed methods.

Assessing soil microbial functional diversity: detailed methods

Appendix F. Ordination diagram of principal coordinates analysis, showing the effects of age on the soil C and N of Madrid and Málaga.

Ordination diagram of principal coordinates analysis, showing the effects of age on the soil C and N of Madrid and Málaga