Tissue Microenvironments Define and Get Reinforced by Macrophage Phenotypes in Homeostasis or during Inflammation, Repair and Fibrosis

Current macrophage phenotype classifications are based on distinct in vitro culture conditions that do not adequately mirror complex tissue environments. In vivo monocyte progenitors populate all tissues for immune surveillance which supports the maintenance of homeostasis as well as regaining homeostasis after injury. Here we propose to classify macrophage phenotypes according to prototypical tissue environments, e.g. as they occur during homeostasis as well as during the different phases of (dermal) wound healing. In tissue necrosis and/or infection, damage- and/or pathogen-associated molecular patterns induce proinflammatory macrophages by Toll-like receptors or inflammasomes. Such classically activated macrophages contribute to further tissue inflammation and damage. Apoptotic cells and antiinflammatory cytokines dominate in postinflammatory tissues which induce macrophages to produce more antiinflammatory mediators. Similarly, tumor-associated macrophages also confer immunosuppression in tumor stroma. Insufficient parenchymal healing despite abundant growth factors pushes macrophages to gain a profibrotic phenotype and promote fibrocyte recruitment which both enforce tissue scarring. Ischemic scars are largely devoid of cytokines and growth factors so that fibrolytic macrophages that predominantly secrete proteases digest the excess extracellular matrix. Together, macrophages stabilize their surrounding tissue microenvironments by adapting different phenotypes as feed-forward mechanisms to maintain tissue homeostasis or regain it following injury. Furthermore, macrophage heterogeneity in healthy or injured tissues mirrors spatial and temporal differences in microenvironments during the various stages of tissue injury and repair. Copyright (C) 2012 S. Karger AG, Base

The dynamics of expanding mangroves in New Zealand

In contrast to the global trend of mangrove decline, New Zealand mangroves are rapidly expanding, facilitated by elevated sediment inputs in coastal waters as a consequence of large-scale land use changes following European settlement. New Zealand mangroves are at the southern limit of the global mangrove extent, which limits the tree height of Avicennia marina var. australasica, the only mangrove species present. Mangroves in New Zealand thrive in the sheltered environments of infilling drowned river valleys with abundant supply of fine terrigenous sediments, showing various stages of mangrove succession and expansion dynamics. Bio-physical interactions and carbon dynamics in these expanding temperate mangrove systems show similarities to, but also differ from those in tropical mangrove forests, for instance due to the limited height and complexity of the mangrove communities. Likewise, ecosystem services provided by New Zealand mangroves deviate from those offered by tropical mangroves. In particular, the association of mangrove expansion with the accumulation of (the increased supply of) fine sediments and the consequent change of estuarine ecosystems, has provoked a negative perception of mangrove expansion and subsequently led to mangrove clearance. Over recent decades, a body of knowledge has been developed regarding the planning and decision making relating to mangrove removal, yet there are still effects that are unknown, for example with respect to the post-clearance recovery of the original sandflat ecosystems. In this chapter we discuss the dynamics of New Zealand’s expanding mangroves from a range of viewpoints, with the aim of elucidating the possible contributions of expanding mangroves to coastal ecosystem services, now and in the future. This chapter also reviews current policies and practice regarding mangrove removal in New Zealand and addresses the (un)known effects of mangrove clearance. These combined insights may contribute to the development of integrated coastal management strategies that recognise the full potential of expanding mangrove ecosystems

LONGITUDINAL DYNAMIC STRENGTH INDEX PROFILING IN COLLEGIATE OLYMPIC WEIGHTLIFTERS PREPARING FOR NATIONAL COMPETITION

Jose M. Mostaffa-Viloria1, Harry P. Cintineo1, Kyle L. Sunderland1, & Patrick S. Harty1 1Lindenwood University, St. Charles, Missouri Dynamic strength index (DSI) is an indicator showing the relationship between an athlete’s relative strength and power production capacity. This metric is calculated by dividing the peak propulsive force of an athletes’ countermovement vertical jump (CMVJ) by the peak force generated during an isometric mid-thigh pull (IMTP). The resulting ratio shows whether an athlete is relatively more strength- or power-dominant, with some researchers suggesting that scores between 0.6 – 0.8 represent athletes with a well-balanced lower-body strength and power profile. However, there have been no published studies reporting cross-sectional or longitudinal DSI data in collegiate Olympic weightlifters. PURPOSE: To characterize DSI scores and evaluate longitudinal changes in DSI and its constituent variables in collegiate Olympic weightlifters. METHODS: Male (n = 10) and female (n = 12) collegiate Olympic weightlifters performed three trials each of CMVJ and IMTP once per week during the final eight-week peaking period prior to a major national competition. All tests occurred following a 12h abstention from exercise and a standardized warmup. Mixed effects models with random intercept for subject ID were computed to identify week-to-week differences in DSI, CMVJ, and IMTP performance (α = 0.05). Cohen’s d effect sizes were calculated comparing between each week and baseline. RESULTS: Mean DSI across the entire testing period was 0.725 ± 0.133. Significant changes in CMVJ peak propulsive force (p = 0.057), IMTP peak force (p = 0.066), and DSI (p = 0.855) were not detected throughout the testing period. Effect sizes showing the magnitude of changes in IMTP and CMVJ compared to Week 1 were negligible (d \u3c 0.10). Effect sizes were slightly larger for between-week comparisons in DSI, which decreased from baseline in Weeks 3 (d = 0.21), 5 (d = 0.19), and 7 (d = 0.22). CONCLUSION: The average DSI for collegiate Olympic weightlifters fell within the ideal range hypothesized by previous investigators (0.6 – 0.8). DSI and its component variables did not significantly change across the eight-week period, although small magnitudes of between-week change were detected. These results suggest practitioners can perform less frequent DSI tests and still capture a relevant strength and power profile of their athletes

LACK OF ASYMMETRIES IN COLLEGIATE MALE VOLLEYBALL DURING BILATERAL ATHLETIC SHOULDER TEST

Leah E. Allen1, Harry P. Cintineo1, Petey W. Mumford1, Patrick S. Harty1, & Kyle L. Sunderland1 1Lindenwood University, St. Charles, Missouri The Athletic Shoulder (ASH) test was developed to measure force across the shoulder girdle to assess and monitor isometric strength in athletes. To our knowledge, no research data regarding the ASH test have been published examining collegiate men’s volleyball. PURPOSE: To compare shoulder girdle force production in the dominant serving arm (DA) and non-dominant serving arm (NA) in two different arm positions. METHODS: Collegiate male volleyball athletes (N=19) participated in this cross-sectional study. Participants underwent two separate bilateral ASH test familiarization sessions prior to testing. Following a standardized warm-up, participants laid prone with each hand positioned on a force plate platform (Hawkin Dynamics, Westbrook, ME). Three bilateral maximal isometric contractions at 180º of shoulder abduction (i.e., “I”) were completed followed by three contractions at 135º of shoulder abduction (i.e., “Y”) with 30 seconds rest between contractions. Peak force was measured for each trial with maximal peak and mean force of the 3 trials calculated for analysis. Repeated measures analysis was used to assess interactions between positions (“I” vs. “Y”) and arm (DA vs. NA; α = 0.05). RESULTS: There were no significant interactions for maximal (p = 0.638) or mean (p = 0.588) peak force production between arms in the different positions. Additionally, no significant main effects were observed between positions or arms for maximal or mean peak force (p \u3e 0.05). “I” position maximal peak force DA and NA was 104 ± 22 N and 102 ± 21 N, respectively. Similarly, “Y” position maximal peak force for the DA and NA was 107 ± 27 N and 103 ± 28 N, respectively. In terms of mean peak force, DA and NA produced 98 ± 21 N and 96 ± 20 N, respectively, in the “I” position and 99 ± 24 N 95 ± 25 N, respectively, in the “Y” position. CONCLUSIONS: This is the first study to report descriptive data for the ASH test in collegiate male volleyball players. These data can serve as useful metrics for practitioners to collect for comparative analyses within their teams. Additionally, these data reveal that collegiate male volleyball athletes have no detectable isometric force asymmetries between their arms, regardless of the arm position. Future research should investigate the potential injury risks if asymmetries were to exist in this population

THE ACUTE EFFECTS OF A MULTI-INGREDIENT PRE-WORKOUT SUPPLEMENT ON EXERCISE PERFORMANCE

Patrick S. HartyƗ1, Jacob L. EricksonƗ2, Michael CameronƗ2, Clayton Camicǂ2, Scott Dobersteinǂ2, Joel Luedkeǂ2, & Andrew R. Jagimǂ1 1Lindenwood University, St. Charles, Missouri; 2University of Wisconsin–La Crosse, La Crosse, Wisconsin The use of dietary supplements to enhance exercise performance has long been a popular strategy for active individuals. A newer category of dietary supplements referred to as multi-ingredient pre-workout supplements (MIPS) has gained increased attention among active individuals. While several studies support the use of MIPS to increase exercise performance in males, limited data exist regarding effectiveness in female populations. PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to examine the acute effects of ingesting a MIPS on exercise responses and subjective measures of energy, focus, and fatigue in recreationally active females. METHODS: Fifteen recreationally-active females (Mean ± SD, 21.5 ± 1.7 yrs, 165.3 ± 5.3 cm, 61.6 ± 5.1 kg) participated in a randomized, double-blind, placebo controlled study. Subjects completed baseline and two experimental testing sessions in a cross-over design. After height and weight were assessed, subjects completed a 5-repetition maximum (5RM) test for the bench press (BP) and back squat (BS) exercises during baseline testing. During the experimental testing sessions, participants were randomly assigned to ingest either 1 serving of a MIPS or placebo and performed a repetition to failure test for both BS and BP at 85% 5RM and were later assessed for differences in anaerobic power using a counter-movement vertical jump test and a sprint test on a force-treadmill. Subjective measurements of energy, focus, and fatigue were assessed using a 5-point Likert scale. Paired samples t-tests were used to assess differences in muscular endurance and anaerobic capacity between each condition. A repeated measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to assess differences in Likert scale scores between treatment conditions. RESULTS: A significant main effect for condition was observed for BP repetitions (p=0.037) and total work during the treadmill sprint (p=0.039) following ingestion of the MIPS. A significant condition x time interaction for focus was observed with the supplement treatment exhibiting improved focus at 80-minutes post ingestion (p=0.046). CONCLUSION: It appears that acute MIPS consumption improves upper body muscular endurance and anaerobic capacity while improving subjective feelings of focus following high-intensity exercise in recreationally active females. Funding for this project was provided by the International Society of Sports Nutrition and MusclePharmTM aspart of an unrestricted education grant

THE EFFECT OF VARIABLE RESISTANCE TRAINING USING WEIGHTED CHAINS ON MUSCULAR STRENGTH AND POWER

Richard A. Stecker Ɨ1, Charles R. Smith Ɨ1, Patrick S. Harty Ɨ1, Brad T. Gieske Ɨ1, Jonathan N. Mike ǂ1, Scott Richmond ǂ1, Chad M. Kerksick ǂ1 1Lindenwood University, St. Charles, MO Strength and power are crucial attributes for nearly all types of athletes. Resistance training using chain-loaded barbells has become popular as a means to increase strength and power production. PURPOSE: The purpose of this study is to compare the effects of weighted-chains on muscular strength and muscular power during the bench press exercise. METHODS: A total of 11 recreationally active men (26.8 ± 5.9 yrs, 181.9 ± 5.1 cm, 91.4 ± 11.7 kg, 20.6 ± 3.4 % fat) completed 4-weeks of training using one of three styles of bench press (BP) (60% 1RM, n = 3; 40% 1RM, n = 4; or weighted chains, n = 4) to assess changes in strength, power, and velocity. To measure power participants were tethered anteriorly to a linear position transducer and performed five explosive push-ups while maintaining hand contact to the floor. Upon completion of the first testing session each study participant was matched according to baseline strength levels to one of the three training groups. Participants completed a supervised 3-day per week resistance training program for 4-weeks with each training session separated by at least 48 hours. The training groups performed 5 sets of 5 reps BP with one of the following intensities: 60% of 1RM, 40% of 1RM, or 60% of 1RM with 20% from weighted chains. All participants completed the same accessory lifts. RESULTS: A two-way mixed factorial ANOVA (group x time) with repeated measures on time revealed no significant differences from baseline at two and four weeks of training for BP 1RM (p= 0.87, 0.82; respectively), average push-up power (p = 0.19, 0.21; respectively), peak push-up power (p = 0.55, 0.12; respectively) and peak push-up velocity (p = 0.39, 0.21; respectively). A significant difference was found in average push- up velocity among all groups (p = 0.008), with a Tukey Post-Hoc finding significance between the weighted-chains and 60% 1RM group within 2-weeks (p = 0.006). CONCLUSION: Over a 4-week period, no differences in upper-body strength and power were observed between the groups. Average push-up velocity was shown to increase after 2-weeks of training using weighted chains in comparison to training at 60% 1RM. Further research is needed with a larger sample size, longer training protocol, and other intensity and volume prescriptions to better determine the impact of resistance training using this approach

FAT-FREE MASS INDEX IN A DIVERSE SAMPLE OF FEMALE COLLEGIATE ATHLETES

Patrick S. Harty1, Hannah A. Zabriskie1, Richard A. Stecker1, Bradley S. Currier1, Jessica M. Moon1, Andrew R. Jagim1, Chad M. Kerksick1, FACSM 1Lindenwood University, St. Charles, Missouri Fat-free mass index (FFMI) is a height-adjusted metric of fat-free mass that has been suggested to have a variety of applications in the classification of athletic populations, including the assessment of athletic potential and capacity for further fat-free mass accretion. Previous researchers have identified FFMI upper limits of 28.1 kg/m2 in male football players and 25 kg/m2 in resistance-trained males. However, little information exists regarding normative FFMI values and upper limits of FFMI in female athletes. PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to determine sport-specific FFMI values and the natural upper limit of FFMI in female athletes. METHODS: 372 female collegiate athletes (Mean ± SD; Age: 20.0 ± 1.6 years, Height: 167.6 ± 7.5 cm, Weight: 69.5 ± 13.0 kg, Percent body fat: 24.2 ± 5.5 %) underwent body composition assessment via dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry. FFMI was calculated by dividing fat-free mass by height squared and was adjusted to mean height via linear regression. Between-sport differences were identified using one-way ANOVA with Tukey post-hoc tests. RESULTS: Height-adjusted and unadjusted FFMI values were not significantly different (p \u3c 0.05). Thus, unadjusted data was used to report all results (Table 1). Average FFMI was 18.82 ± 2.09 kg/m2. FFMI in rugby athletes was significantly higher (p \u3c 0.05) than in gymnastics, ice hockey, lacrosse, swim & dive, and volleyball. FFMI in cross country and synchronized swimming was significantly lower (p \u3c 0.05) than in Olympic weightlifting, wrestling, and rugby. The upper limit for FFMI in female athletes (97.5th percentile) was 23.9 kg/m2. The upper limit for rugby athletes in this sample was 25.78 kg/m2. CONCLUSION: This study is the first to report upper limits for FFMI in female collegiate athletes and more than doubled the available normative FFMI data in female athletes. These results can be used to guide personnel decisions and assist with body composition, training, and nutritional goals

IFN-β-Induced Alteration of VSV Protein Phosphorylation in Neuronal Cells

Vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV) replication is highly sensitive to interferon (IFN)-induced antiviral responses. VSV infection of well-known cell lines pretreated with IFN-β results in a 104-fold reduction in the release of infectious particles, with a concomitant abrogation in viral transcript and/or protein levels. However, in cell lines of neuronal lineage only a threefold reduction in viral transcript and protein levels was observed, despite the same 104-fold reduction in released infectious virions, suggesting an assembly defect. Examination of VSV matrix (M) protein ubiquitination yielded no differences between mock- and IFN-β-treated neuronal cells. Further analysis of potential post-translational modification events, by scintillation and two-dimensional electrophoretic methods, revealed IFN-β-induced alterations in M protein and phosphoprotein (P) phosphorylation. Hypophosphorylated P protein was demonstrated by reduced 32P counts, normalized by 35S-cysteine/methionine incorporation, and by a shift in isoelectric focusing. Hypophosphorylation of VSV P protein was found to occur in neuronal cell lysates, but not within budded virions from the same IFN-β-treated cells. In contrast, hyperphosphorylation of VSV M protein was observed in both cell lysates and viral particles from IFN-β-treated neuronal cells. Hyperphosphorylated M protein was demonstrated by increased 32P counts relative to 35S-cysteine/methionine normalization, and by altered isoelectric focusing in protein populations from cell and viral lysates. Hyperphosphorylated VSV M protein was found to inhibit its association with VSV nucleocapsid, suggesting a possible mechanism for type I IFN-mediated misassembly through disruption of the interactions between ribonucleoprotein cores, and hyperphosphorylated M protein bound to the plasma membrane inner leaflet