Best practice for motor imagery: a systematic literature review on motor imagery training elements in five different disciplines

<p>Abstract</p> <p>Background</p> <p>The literature suggests a beneficial effect of motor imagery (MI) if combined with physical practice, but detailed descriptions of MI training session (MITS) elements and temporal parameters are lacking. The aim of this review was to identify the characteristics of a successful MITS and compare these for different disciplines, MI session types, task focus, age, gender and MI modification during intervention.</p> <p>Methods</p> <p>An extended systematic literature search using 24 databases was performed for five disciplines: Education, Medicine, Music, Psychology and Sports. References that described an MI intervention that focused on motor skills, performance or strength improvement were included. Information describing 17 MITS elements was extracted based on the PETTLEP (physical, environment, timing, task, learning, emotion, perspective) approach. Seven elements describing the MITS temporal parameters were calculated: study duration, intervention duration, MITS duration, total MITS count, MITS per week, MI trials per MITS and total MI training time.</p> <p>Results</p> <p>Both independent reviewers found 96% congruity, which was tested on a random sample of 20% of all references. After selection, 133 studies reporting 141 MI interventions were included. The locations of the MITS and position of the participants during MI were task-specific. Participants received acoustic detailed MI instructions, which were mostly standardised and live. During MI practice, participants kept their eyes closed. MI training was performed from an internal perspective with a kinaesthetic mode. Changes in MI content, duration and dosage were reported in 31 MI interventions. Familiarisation sessions before the start of the MI intervention were mentioned in 17 reports. MI interventions focused with decreasing relevance on motor-, cognitive- and strength-focused tasks. Average study intervention lasted 34 days, with participants practicing MI on average three times per week for 17 minutes, with 34 MI trials. Average total MI time was 178 minutes including 13 MITS. Reporting rate varied between 25.5% and 95.5%.</p> <p>Conclusions</p> <p>MITS elements of successful interventions were individual, supervised and non-directed sessions, added after physical practice. Successful design characteristics were dominant in the Psychology literature, in interventions focusing on motor and strength-related tasks, in interventions with participants aged 20 to 29 years old, and in MI interventions including participants of both genders. Systematic searching of the MI literature was constrained by the lack of a defined MeSH term.</p

Evaluation of the physical activity scale for individuals with physical disabilities in people with spinal cord injury

Study design: Cross-sectional study. Objectives: To evaluate the physical activity scale for individuals with physical disabilities (PASIPD) in people with spinal cord injury (SCI). Setting: Eight Dutch rehabilitation centers with a specialized SCI unit. Methods: The PASIPD was examined by comparing group scores of people with different personal (age, gender and body mass index) and lesion characteristics (level (paraplegia/tetraplegia), completeness, time since injury (TSI)) in 139 persons with SCI 1 year after discharge from in-patient rehabilitation. Relationships between PASIPD scores and measures of activities (wheelchair skills, Utrecht Activity List, mobility range and social behavior subscales of the SIP68) and fitness (peak oxygen uptake, peak power output and muscular strength) were determined. Results: Persons with tetraplegia had significantly lower PASIPD scores than those with paraplegia (P Conclusion: In a fairly homogeneous group of persons with SCI, 1 year after in-patient rehabilitation, the PASIPD showed weak-to-moderate relationships with activity and fitness parameters. There seems to be a limited association between self-reported activity level and fitness in people with SCI. Spinal Cord (2010) 48, 542-547; doi:10.1038/sc.2009.178; published online 15 December 200

Advancing leadership in sport: Time to take off the blinkers?

While leadership is one of the most significant factors in sport, most research has focused on who effective leaders are and what they overtly do rather than why and how they lead in a certain way at a certain time. Presumably shaped by social norms, the bulk of this work has also overstated the role of bright (or socially desirable) leadership intentions and behaviours; or at least overlooked how this style fits with the ‘darker’ (or socially undesirable) intentions and behaviours that are prevalent and effective in applied practice. Contextualising this situation against the origins and dominant paradigms of sport-specific study, we therefore highlight the need for greater emphasis on both the cognitive and dark sides of leadership. Regarding the former, we argue that expert leadership requires cognitive excellence given that optimal and consistent impact requires the conscious selection, combination and deployment of leadership behaviours. Regarding the latter, we also argue that bright intentions and behaviours can often only be a part of an effective leadership repertoire and can beneficially operate in tandem with inherently dark alternatives. To advance knowledge and practice, we therefore call for a more pragmatic approach to research that considers both the cognitive mechanisms—namely professional judgement and decision making—and the full spectrum of intentions and behaviours that underpin real world leadership