Electrodynamics of the AgI/solution interface

The purpose of this study is to gain insight in electrodynamic processes in colloidal systems, that is, in the electrical currents that flow because of the movement of charged particles. There is a need for such insight, because the DUO theory describing the stability of electrocratic colloids cannot answer the following question: can interacting particles in the short time of Brownian encounter adjust their charge to the disequilibration resulting from the overlap of the double layers and thus keep their potential constant ? Or will the particles keep their charge constant during the interaction? The answer depends on the rate of various possible charge transfer processes. We have chosen for electrodes to investigate the dynamic phenomena of interest, and for AgI as the model substance.Chapter I offers a general introduction to the theme, and describes the outline of this study.The experimental technique used (the coulostatic impulse method) is based on the following experiment. A small departure from the equilibrium potential is instantaneously imposed on two identical electrodes. The overpotential relaxes and the decay, of which the precise shape contains information on the various processes, is recorded. In chapter II we describe the preparation of the AgI electrodes and the other materials, the setup and the procedure to convert the decay signal into an impedance spectrum.In chapter III an analysis of the impedance spectrum is made, and the possible components of the electrical equivalent circuit are discussed. It is shown that surface roughness of the electrode seriously complicates the mass transport impedance and this may ruin the analysis of the impedance spectrum. It is concluded that the combined analysis of two admittance functions, employing both the real and imaginary components, provides the best method: it allows to clearly recognize the effects of surface roughness, and the analysis can easily be automated. It is also shown that ion transfer through the interface is a rapid process, and that diffusion in the solution (mass transport) is the rate limiting step.In chapter IV experimental results are presented in terms of capacitances and Warburg (diffusional) coefficients under various conditions of potential and electrolyte concentration. The data refer to 'clean' electrodes, as well as to electrodes with an adsorbed polymer layer. The polymers used were PVA (M ca. 9 * 10 4 ) and PVP (M ca. 9 * 10 5 ). The results are compared with literature data. Generally, the agreement was satisfactory, and a tentative explanation for the trends in the capacitances was forwarded. The Warburg coefficients showed some deviation from the theoretically expected behaviour, the more so when polymer was adsorbed.Chapter V summarizes the literature on relaxation processes during interaction in colloids, and resumes the experimental information from the previous chapters. Particularly the assessment of ion transfer as a fast process calls for a reconsideration of the hitherto existing picture. Three possible relaxation routes (after ion transfer) of the excess charge on the particle are described and relaxation times for each are estimated. It is concluded that silver iodide particles, uncovered or covered with a polymer layer, can adjust their surface charge on the time scale of a collision by at least one of the transport processes described. The interaction thus takes place under conditions of constant potential

Cathodic protection of reinforced concrete structures in the Netherlands - Experience and developments: Cathodic protection of concrete - 10 years experience

Cathodic protection (CP) of reinforcing steel in concrete structures has been used successfully for over 20 years. CP is able to stop corrosion in a reliable and economical way where chloride contamination has caused reinforcement corrosion and subsequent concrete damage. To new structures where corrosion is anticipated, cathodic prevention can be applied. Recently the state-of-the-art was described and a draft European standard has been published. In The Netherlands, CP was introduced in 1987 and since then 20 full scale projects were executed. In all cases, alternatives such as replacement of the elements or conventional repair were considered, but CP was preferred for reasons of practicability, safety and durability. Most structures with CP in The Netherlands concern mixed in chloride and relatively small precast concrete elements. In 1996, CP was applied to parts of a post-tensioned bridge. Based on practical experience, a National Technical Recommendation was published. This paper describes the history, the principles and three examples

The influence of blast furnace slag, fly ash and silica fume on corrosion of reinforced concrete in marine environment

Chloride penetration from sea water may cause corrosion of reinforcement in concrete structures. Adding reactive inorganic materials such as blast furnace slag, fly ash or silica fume to the cement matrix improves the resistance against chloride penetration as compared to Portland cement concrete. A relatively simple laboratory procedure was proposed to test concrete mixes for their expected service life in sea environment. The assumption is that chloride diffusion and cover depth determine the time-to-initiation of corrosion and electrical resistivity determines the corrosion rate and so the time-to-cracking. The sum is the total "service life". The proposed testing procedure was applied to five concrete mixes. They contained ordinary Portland cement; OPC + silica fume; OPC + fly ash + silica fume; blast furnace slag cement, all with gravel aggregate; opc and lightweight coarse aggregate. The predicted time-to-initiation and the time-to-cracking in marine splash zone were calculated from the test results. The calculated service lives range from 10 to 80 years, increasing in the order: OPC-lightweight aggregate < OPC-gravel < OPC + silica fume-gravel < OPC + fly ash + silica fume-gravel < blast furnace slag cement-gravel. The ranking and the numerical results are in general agreement with data from exposure research and with practical experience. The addition of blast furnace slag, fly ash and/or silica fume may significantly increase the resistance against chloride penetration and consequently the time-to-initiation of corrosion. Once corrosion has started, steel in concrete with additional cementing materials may have a decreased rate of corrosion. The proposed set of laboratory tests appears suitable for evaluating the effect on corrosion protection in marine environment of new and/or supposedly improved concrete compositions