Ex-ante assessment of air quality in EUSALPS and EUSAIR macro-regions: Towards a coordinated science-based approach in support of policy development

The study focuses on the air quality issues of the EUSALP and EUSAIR macro-regions and discusses areas for improvement to be considered in the development of their future strategies. Key areas where action is expected to be most effective, considering the particular features of the macro-regions, are those of residential heating, traffic and shipping emissions. A strengthened collaboration at the macro-regional level, especially between EU and non-EU countries, has the potential to boost environmental policies by promoting collaboration and exchange of best practices among cities and regions that face similar challenges.JRC.C.5-Air and Climat

Receptor Modeling Source Apportionment of PM10 and Benzo(a)pyrene in Krakow, Poland

The main energy source in Krakow, Poland is coal combustion, which is believed to be the reason for frequent winter episodes of extremely high ambient air concentrations of particulate matter (PM10) and associated benzo(a)pyrene B(a)P. Results are presented on the source apportionment of PM10 and B(a)P during two episodes of thermal inversion (14/1 ; 2/3, 2005) at four different air monitoring stations and four apartments (indoor) in the city of Krakow, The results are compared to the Zakopane mountain site selected due to its prominent domestic coal heating and little traffic. The source apportionment was based on receptor modeling of the total of 72 ambient PM samples and 21 individual PM sources, chemically characterised for a high number of organic and inorganic compounds including polyaromatics (15 PAH and 18 azaarenes) heavy metals and trace elements (28 compounds), major ions, soot and organic carbon. An array of multivariate receptor models was used i.e. chemical mass balance (CMB), constrained matrix factorisation (CMF), constrained physical receptor modelling (COPREM) positive matrix factorization (PMF), principle component analysis with multi-linear regression analysis (PCA-MLRA), edge analysis (UNMIX), cluster analysis (CA), and self organizing maps SOM). The variation in the receptor dataset (55 compounds, 60 outdoor and 12 indoor PM samples) allowed the models of the pure factor analysis type (PMF, UNMIX, PCA-MLRA) to identify 3-5 factors of mixed sources. The interpretation of the factors was not straightforward, but pointed to a dominating primary source contribution from coal combustion (>60%) and a minor contribution from traffic (<10%). The secondary PM sources (20-30%) comprised industry and traffic. The results of cluster analysis and self organizing maps supported these indications. PMF was able to disaggregate the coal combustion into three factors i.e. ~10% related to industrial activities, ~20% related to home heating by stoves (coal) and ~30% related to boilers. The chemical fingerprints of the receptor samples and the main PM sources in Krakow and Zakopane allowed the pure chemical mass balance; type model (EPA-CMB8.2) to estimate the major contributions from two primary source types i.e. residential heating by coal combustion in small stoves and low efficiency boilers (~45%) and boilers with rudimentary PM reductions techniques such as cyclones (~15%), one major secondary source deriving from industrial and traffic emissions of SO2 + NOx + possibly HCl (~20%). Five minor primary sources were also identified i.e. traffic 5%, biomass burning ~5%, coke/fuel combustion ~5%, industrial high efficiency coal combustion 3%, and road/salt/rock re-suspension ~2%. The indoor PM10 and B(a)P were found to have the same sources as outdoor PM10 and B(a)P The results obtained by the models CMF and COPREM - which are hybrids of factor analysis and chemical mass balance generally agreed with the CMB results. However, their source contribution estimates are slightly different: residential heating ~30%, boilers with rudimentary PM reductions techniques such as cyclones ~30%, industrial high efficiency coal combustion ~15% traffic 3-7%, secondary 13-21%, road/salt/rock re-suspension 2-8%. All receptor models calculated residential heating to be the principal PM source in Zakopane (70-80%).JRC.H.4-Transport and air qualit

PCDD/Fs in Ambient Air of Krakow - Seasonal Changes in Congener Distributions

In some new EU-Member States coal is still widely used for residential heating. In winter during the inversion conditions, emissions from solid fuel-fired residential appliances contribute to elevated concentrations of particles in ambient air. Moche and Thanner have shown that these particles can contain high amounts of polychlorinated dibenzodioxins and -furans (PCDD/Fs), which results in a significant contribution to the overall PCDD/F emissions. This study aims at identifying the influence of these PCDD/F emissions on ambient air in the region of Malopolska, Poland. PCDD/F concentrations and congener patterns in ambient air particulate matter were measured in Zakopane, a rural site predominated by residential heating and at two sites in Krakow, one of mainly industrial character and a site in the city center characterized by traffic, domestic heating and diffuse industrial sources. A summer/winter comparison was made in order to estimate the specific influence of domestic heating. For comparison a soot sample was collected from the walls of a chimney of a domestic stove where a mix of brown coal and wood was used.JRC.H.5-Rural, water and ecosystem resource

Assesment of the of Pcdd/Fs Emissions from Coal Fired Residential Heating Appliances by Air Dispersion Moddeling

Coal fired stoves for residential heating could generate significant PCDD/Fs emissions to the air. This is now reflected also in the new version of the Standardised Toolkit for Identification and Quantification of Dioxin and Furan Releases which in addition to given emission factor of 3 μg TEQ/ t provides also the very high value of 400 μg TEQ/ t for high chlorine coal combusted in the stoves.1 With such a high emission factor residential heating could be the dominant source of PCDD/Fs where coal with high chlorine content is used in stoves. High levels of the PCDD/Fs in December 2002 were measured by Christoph et al2 in air particulate matter in centre of Krakow, Poland. These levels were attributed to the residential heating by congener profile comparison. This work presents dispersion modelling of residential heating emissions to assess whether high or low emission factors give better match to the measured PCDD/F ambient air levels.JRC.H.4-Transport and air qualit

Dioxin emisions from coal combustion in domestic stove: formation in the chimney and coal chlorine content influence

Combustion experiments conducted in domestic stove burning hard coal demonstrated a predominant influence of the coal chlorine content on the PCDD/F emissions, together with a pronounced effect of the flue gas temperature. PCDD/F concentrations of over 100 ng TEQ/m3, three orders of magnitude higher than in a modern waste incinerator, were measured in the flue gases of a domestic stove when combusting high chlorine coal (0.31 %). The PCDD/F concentrations in the flue gases dropped below 0,5 ng TEQ/m3, when low chlorine coal (0.07 %) was used. When low chlorine coal was impregnated with NaCl to obtain 0.38 % chlorine content, the emission of the PCDD/Fs increased by two orders of magnitude. Pronounced nonlinearity of the PCDD/F concentrations related to chlorine content in the coal was observed. The combustion of the high chlorine coal yielded PCDD/F concentrations in flue gases one order of magnitude lower in a fan cooled chimney when compared to an insulated one, thus indicating formation in the chimney. The influence of flue gas temperature on the PCDD/F emissions was less pronounced when burning low chlorine coal. The predominant pathway of the PCDD/F emissions is via flue gases, 99 % of the TEQ in the case of the high chlorine coal for insulated chimney.JRC.H.1-Water Resource

Assessment of the PCDD/Fs Emissions From Coal Fired Residential Heating Appliances By Air Dispersion Modelling

Coal fired stoves for residential heating could generate significant PCDD/Fs emissions to the air. This is now reflected also in the new version of the Standardised Toolkit for Identification and Quantification of Dioxin and Furan Releases which in addition to given emission factor of 3 microg TEQ/ t provides also the very high value of 400 microg TEQ/ t for high chlorine coal combusted in the stoves. With such a high emission factor residential heating could be the dominant source of PCDD/Fs where coal with high chlorine content is used in stoves. High levels of the PCDD/Fs in December 2002 were measured in air particulate matter in centre of Krakow, Poland. These levels were attributed to the residential heating by congener profile comparison. This work presents dispersion modelling of residential heating emissions to assess whether high or low emission factors give better match to the measured PCDD/F ambient air levels.JRC.H.5-Rural, water and ecosystem resource

Levels and Patterns of PCDD/FS in Air, Soil and Biota from Krakow and the Malopolska Region (Ploand)

In the new EU Member States domestic combustion of coal and wood in small heating appliances has been discussed as a potential source of PCDD/Fs into the atmosphere. The existing Dioxin emission inventories from the old Member States-EU 15 are lacking quantitative information about their actual contribution to total PCDD/F emissions, since these type of heating appliances do not play a big role in the EU 15. However, high PCDD/F levels in ambient air measured during winter time in Poland indicated an important contribution from domestic heating. The widespread use of hard coal in Krakow for domestic heating makes this area appropriate for studying the influence on ambient PCDD/Fs levels.In a first study during summer and winter 2002 particulate matter in air from the city-centre (Aleje) and an industrial area (Nova Huta) in Krakow were compared to a mountain resort without industry (Zakopane approximately 100 km south of Krakow), in order to visualize urban and industrial impacts. The air samples of summer and winter 2002 showed differences in the levels of Dioxin concentrations and also in Dioxin congener patterns. At Zakopane the Dioxin concentrations were low during summer with a Dioxin congener pattern typical for long range transport and remote areas. During winter, the congener-pattern changed drastically and also the Dioxin-concentration rose about 40 times to the highest levels found at this study. Since there is no industry present at Zakopane, the use of hard-coal for domestic heating was assigned as the main source for the Dioxins in Zakopane air. The city centre of Krakow showed the same summer winter change: A rise of 20 times in concentrations and also similar fingerprints as Zakopane in winter, indicating that domestic heating with hard coal is the dominant emission source also in Krakow. Dioxin emissions from traffic and industry, which should be visible during summer as well, had only minor impact on the investigated sites in the center of Krakow. In contrast, Nova Huta showed no change between summer and winter. High concentrations were measured in summer and in winter and the fingerprint, which was different compared to Krakow and Zakopane, did not change. This indicated that Dioxins in Nova Huta air resulted from continuous industrial emissions close to the surface level from nearby located coke production and metal industries. In the study reported here, additional air samples (this time particulate matter and gas phase) were collected during 2 weeks in winter 2005 from two sites in Krakow. To extend the study on the impact of emissions on environmental pollution in the region, a transect of soil samples (the sink of atmospheric bulk deposition) and biota (spruce needles as an indicator for the bio-availability of airborne PCDD/Fs) were taken between Krakow and Zakopane and from Krakow to the east. The 2002 campaign on ambient air demonstrated a major role of domestic heating on the PCDD/F levels present in the ambient air of urban and especially rural areas where coal is used, but also diffuse release from industrial processes at Nova Huta may have an impact on a local scale. Thus, the comparably high PCDD/F concentrations found in ambient air of Krakow/Malopolska region do not seem to result in enhanced PCDD/F deposition into the Malopolska ecosystem (the concentrations of PCDD/Fs in soil and spruce were comparable to data available from Western Europe).JRC.H.5-Rural, water and ecosystem resource