Evaluation of a tool for Java structural specification checking

Although a number of tools for evaluating Java code functionality and style exist, little work has been done in a distance learning context on automated marking of Java programs with respect to structural specifications. Such automated checks support human markers in assessing students’ work and evaluating their own marking; online automated marking; students checking code before submitting it for marking; and question setters evaluating the completeness of questions set. This project developed and evaluated a prototype tool that performs an automated check of a Java program’s correctness with respect to a structural specification. Questionnaires and interviews were used to gather feedback on the usefulness of the tool as a marking aid to humans, and on its potential usefulness to students for self-assessment when working on their assignments. Markers were asked to compare the usefulness of structural specification testing as compared to other kinds of support, including syntax error assistance, style checking and functionality testing. Initial results suggest that most markers using the structural specification checking tool found it to be useful, and some reported that it increased their accuracy in marking. Reasons for not using the tool included lack of time and the simplicity of the assignment it was trialled on. Some reservations were expressed about reliance on tools for assessment, both for markers and for students. The need for advice on incorporating tools in marking workflow is suggested

Gender Differences and Digital Learning Games – One Size Does not fit all

The intrinsic motivation demonstrated towards digital games provides the opportunity for its use as a learning tool irrespective of gender differences. This has resulted in the combination of the motivation of games with curricular content referred to as Digital Game-Based Learning. While some related studies have argued that there are no gender differences in the motivational appeal of digital educational games, others present an opposing view. This paper reports the result of an investigation into the motivational appeal of digital educational games for 11-14 years old girls and boys. There is evidence that this age group is pivotal to the shrinking pipeline phenomenon in which fewer females progressively engage with computer science education and careers. The investigation involved a two stage study composed of a qualitative exploratory study, which identified the key criteria for the successful appeal of some digital entertainment games to young girls and boys and a main study. The main study generate both qualitative and quantitative data to further investigate the motivational appeal of digital educational games for learning basic computer science concepts for both girls and boys of age 11-14 years old. For the main study, two experimental games for learning basic computer science concepts were created based on the key criteria identified from the exploratory study. The first included the game characteristics that appeared to support the motivational appeal of the girls. The second game was antithetical to the first. Both genders from the participating population engaged with both games and online questionnaires were used to capture data on their perception of both games. The outcome of the investigation which involved 304 participants (girls = 152 and boys =152) from Southeast England, United Kingdom provided the empirical evidence in support of the argument that there are gender differences in the motivational appeal of digital educational game characteristics which can either support or thwart motivation i.e. one size does not fit all. The result of this investigation should support educationists, researchers and digital educational game designers in having an inclusive approach towards the creation of digital educational games for learning

An Investigation Of Digital Games Features That Appeal To Young Females And Males

This research is part of an attempt to address the well-known problem of female underrepresentation in computer science education and industry. This problem starts between ages 11 to 14 and gets progressively worse in what is often referred to as the “shrinking pipeline effect”. There has been considerable research into the causes of the shrinking pipeline and attempts to halt or reverse it. In spite of this, the causes remain unclear and there is evidence that the problem may be worsening. Digital games are increasingly used in education because of their ability to engage and motivate young learners. Unfortunately, digital games used in the teaching of IT and computer science have been found to appeal less to females than males. This is in spite of the fact that digital games intended for entertainment, as opposed to education, are now very popular with girls. There has been some research into this issue, however more is needed, especially into what game features do and do not appeal to girls at the age that the pipeline starts to shrink. The study reported here aims to identify what characteristics of digital entertainment games appeal to young females and males. The results can be used to guide educators, researchers and game developers and provide criteria for evaluating the suitability of digital educational games for use with specific age groups and genders. We used open card sort with participants aged 11 to 14 to explore their attitude to a range of digital entertainment games. Open card sort allows participants to categorise items in ways that are meaningful to them. There were 32 participants (24 females and 8 males) from four schools in south-east England. They were shown video clips of ten popular games. The participants were then given ten cards, each representing one of the games and asked to sort them into categories based on shared characteristics. This process elicited 131 features (95 from the females and 36 from the males). The data was analysed to identify the features that were a) most significant and b) most appealing to the participants. The findings indicate that there are some gender differences in which game features are perceived as most significant. Some features, such as game action, are significant to the males whereas others, such as game levels, are significant to the females. Interestingly, some features that both genders find significant have different degrees of appeal for example “fun” and “violence”. We are currently using the findings in an experiment with 480 young people. Two digital educational games have been created: one includes features found to appeal to young females and the other includes the opposite or neutral features. The results of this experiment will be used to validate the findings of the initial investigation and form the basis for a framework to facilitate the inclusion of characteristics that appeal to specific groups in educational games and other software

Female Under-Representation in Computing Education and Industry - A Survey of Issues and Interventions

This survey paper examines the issue of female under-representation in computing education and industry, which has been shown from empirical studies to be a problem for over two decades. While various measures and intervention strategies have been implemented to increase the interest of girls in computing education and industry, the level of success has been discouraging. The primary contribution of this paper is to provide an analysis of the extensive research work in this area. It outlines the progressive decline in female representation in computing education. It also presents the key arguments that attempt to explain the decline and intervention strategies. We conclude that there is a need to further explore strategies that will encourage young female learners to interact more with computer educational games

An investigation of digital games features that appeal to young females and males

This research is part of an attempt to address the well-known problem of female underrepresentation in computer science education and industry. This problem starts between ages 11 to 14 and gets progressively worse in what is often referred to as the “shrinking pipeline effect”. There has been considerable research into the causes of the shrinking pipeline and attempts to halt or reverse it. In spite of this, the causes remain unclear and there is evidence that the problem may be worsening. Digital games are increasingly used in education because of their ability to engage and motivate young learners. Unfortunately, digital games used in the teaching of IT and computer science have been found to appeal less to females than males. This is in spite of the fact that digital games intended for entertainment, as opposed to education, are now very popular with girls. There has been some research into this issue, however more is needed, especially into what game features do and do not appeal to girls at the age that the pipeline starts to shrink. The study reported here aims to identify what characteristics of digital entertainment games appeal to young females and males. The results can be used to guide educators, researchers and game developers and provide criteria for evaluating the suitability of digital educational games for use with specific age groups and genders. We used open card sort with participants aged 11 to 14 to explore their attitude to a range of digital entertainment games. Open card sort allows participants to categorise items in ways that are meaningful to them. There were 32 participants (24 females and 8 males) from four schools in south-east England. They were shown video clips of ten popular games. The participants were then given ten cards, each representing one of the games and asked to sort them into categories based on shared characteristics. This process elicited 131 features (95 from the females and 36 from the males). The data was analysed to identify the features that were a) most significant and b) most appealing to the participants. The findings indicate that there are some gender differences in which game features are perceived as most significant. Some features, such as game action, are significant to the males whereas others, such as game levels, are significant to the females. Interestingly, some features that both genders find significant have different degrees of appeal for example “fun” and “violence”. We are currently using the findings in an experiment with 480 young people. Two digital educational games have been created: one includes features found to appeal to young females and the other includes the opposite or neutral features. The results of this experiment will be used to validate the findings of the initial investigation and form the basis for a framework to facilitate the inclusion of characteristics that appeal to specific groups in educational games and other software

Gender Differences and Digital Learning Games – One Size Does not fit all

The intrinsic motivation demonstrated towards digital games provides the opportunity for its use as a learning tool irrespective of gender differences. This has resulted in the combination of the motivation of games with curricular content referred to as Digital Game-Based Learning. While some related studies have argued that there are no gender differences in the motivational appeal of digital educational games, others present an opposing view. This paper reports the result of an investigation into the motivational appeal of digital educational games for 11-14 years old girls and boys. There is evidence that this age group is pivotal to the shrinking pipeline phenomenon in which fewer females progressively engage with computer science education and careers. The investigation involved a two stage study composed of a qualitative exploratory study, which identified the key criteria for the successful appeal of some digital entertainment games to young girls and boys and a main study. The main study generate both qualitative and quantitative data to further investigate the motivational appeal of digital educational games for learning basic computer science concepts for both girls and boys of age 11-14 years old. For the main study, two experimental games for learning basic computer science concepts were created based on the key criteria identified from the exploratory study. The first included the game characteristics that appeared to support the motivational appeal of the girls. The second game was antithetical to the first. Both genders from the participating population engaged with both games and online questionnaires were used to capture data on their perception of both games. The outcome of the investigation which involved 304 participants (girls = 152 and boys =152) from Southeast England, United Kingdom provided the empirical evidence in support of the argument that there are gender differences in the motivational appeal of digital educational game characteristics which can either support or thwart motivation i.e. one size does not fit all. The result of this investigation should support educationists, researchers and digital educational game designers in having an inclusive approach towards the creation of digital educational games for learning

A secondary data analysis of SEAMs responses for programming and non-programming modules by gender

Gender disparity in computer science higher education has been tackled in a number of ways to include structural adjustments to teaching support and teaching contents. Most recently, studies have focused on the use of VLEs to influence gender disparities in university-level computer science courses. Open and distance learning institutions provide printed and online materials mostly as VLEs in the place of lectures in conjunction with computer-based activities, forums, television and radio programmes and student support provision such as face to face tutor sessions, tutor centres etc. The empirical evidence suggests that learning environments that convey gender stereotypes significantly impact on the representation of women in these environments as it impacts on the interest and anticipated success in computer science. The Open University delivers its courses online and blended instruction to include videos, forums, face to face sessions with tutors and tutor centres. A review of related literature about online and blended instruction validated the usefulness and effectiveness of each learning delivery format in relation to learning outcomes and learner satisfaction. The enrolment statistics at The Open University indicates that more males than female are enrolled in the school of computing and communications and fewer women progress on to programming modules. In addition, the current data also suggests that there are no significant differences in the performance by gender for programming modules. However, are there differences in the virtual learner satisfaction by gender? Is there a correlation between virtual learner module satisfaction, teaching, assessment and learning and module content for programming and non-programming modules for both genders? A secondary qualitative data analysis of The Open University student experience on a module survey (SEAMs) data between 2013 and 2016 of programming (M256 & M250) and non-programming modules (T227 & T215) are investigated in this study. A multi-variant review of Module Content and Teaching, Assessment & Learning were compared against Module Satisfaction by gender. The initial findings suggest that the module satisfaction rates are better for non-programing modules in comparison to programing modules for both genders. Furthermore, in most instances of the qualitative analysis, there was a correlation between all three multi-variant factors e.g. a positive linear relationship between module content and teaching, assessment & learning often indicated that the virtual learners were more satisfied with the module. Finally, the initial analysis also indicated that male virtual learners are more satisfied with the programming modules in comparison to the females. Future studies would further investigate the differences in the Module Content and Teaching, Assessment & Learning that could have resulted in the differences in the satisfaction rates by gender in modules

Evaluation of a tool for Java specification testing

Although a number of tools for evaluating Java code style and black box functionality exist, little work has been done on evaluating Java code with respect to a structural specification, for example, one that specifies the existence of required classes, fields, methods and constructors. The CheckM250 project developed and evaluated the use of a tool to perform an automated check of such a structural specification. Tutors were surveyed on the usefulness of the tool when marking students’ code, and on its potential usefulness for students to use when working on their assignments, in comparison with other resources. Most tutors using the specification checking tool reported it to be useful, and some reported that it increased their accuracy in marking. Reasons for not using the tool included lack of awareness, lack of time, and the simplicity of the assignment it was trialled on

A study into the characteristics of game-based learning software that appeal to 11-14 year old girls

The motivation for this study is the under-representation of females in computer science education and careers, which can be seen as both a waste of talent and the loss of educational and career opportunities for girls and women. This problem, commonly referred to as the “shrinking pipeline”, acknowledges the progressive reduction in the number of females in computer science education and careers over a period of years. Strategies and initiatives implemented over the years to solve this problem include attempts to dispel computing career myths, promote the use of mentors and provide accurate information about computing to key influencers of girls. Technological initiatives have also explored the use of digital educational games to engage more girls with computer science. The limitation with these technological initiatives lie in their inability to engage as the many girls as boys, which is reflective of the situation that we see with digital entertainment games. Educational software designed for students and children has been described as exemplifying the same problems as experienced with games designed for boys, because the characteristics often promote negative gender stereotypic constructs about computer science. Considering the ubiquity of digital games, their impact is far reaching across all age groups, but it is particularly important for 11-14 year olds, as this is the age group where a gender divide over computer science appears in schools. To resolve this problem, gender neutral and gendered games were designed to make digital educational games more appealing to girls. The outcomes from these design techniques have resulted in suggestions to including game characteristics that appeal to girls in digital educational game design solutions. Consequently, the research questions addressed by this study are: - (1) “Can we understand what makes some digital entertainment games appealing to 11-14 year old girls?” - (2) “Can we use this knowledge to create computer science learning games that appeal to this audience?” The approach of the research was to conduct an exploratory study of digital entertainment games with a view to identifying the significant game characteristics that make them motivationally appealing to the 11-14 year old girls. The findings of the exploratory study were used to create two digital experimental educational games, one designed around the characteristics with the most positive appeal, and the other designed around the antithetical values of those game characteristics. The experimental games were designed using an adaptation of the Aleven et al. (2010) framework and based on the Google Blockly maze game which facilitated the combination of the learning objectives, game mechanics, dynamics & aesthetics (MDA) and instructional principles. The main study which followed thereafter involved 304 participants (girls=152 and boys=152), from five different locations in southeast England. The participants engaged with both games and online questionnaires were used to collect their views and opinion of the games. The boys of a similar age group were included in the study to provide comparative data for the study. The evidence from the main study identified the significant game characteristics which can make digital educational games appealing to the target group, namely 11-14 year old girls. The evidence indicated that the significant game characteristics are a key criterion in making the experimental games appealing to girls. This knowledge can be used to inform the design of gender-specific digital educational games and gender inclusive games. This can be achieved through the application of design frameworks, and the customisation of the significant game characteristics that appeal to this target group

Motivationally appealing computer science e-learning games:an inclusive design approach

Research has shown that e-learning games do not have the same level of appeal to girls, as they do to boys; particularly in the crucial 11-14 age group. In the United Kingdom, this is typically when they start to make subject choices that impact their future studies and careers. Given the shortage of females who choose computer science as a career, this study explores how e-learning games can be designed to be motivationally appealing to young learners. It further explores the role of game representations and its appeal to this age group. This empirical study addresses the research question: “Can we develop e-learning games which appeal and motivate girls of age 11-14 to study computer science concepts?” Two e-learning games were developed: one included game representations such as game colour, graphics, character, age appropriateness, storyline, number of players, violence, identified as appealing to young females and the other game included antithetical or neutral representations. The two developed prototypes were used to explore key e-learning game representations as used to teach computer science concepts. A total of 304 participants, comprising of 152 girls and 152 boys from a combination of same sex and mixed secondary schools in Southeast England, engaged with both experimental games. The experiment also elicited information on how learners interact with these games and the resulting game appeal, motivation and learning. The insight gained from the analysis of data captured during the experiments, provide the evidence to demonstrate that inclusive e-learning games which motivate and appeal to girls of age 11-14 can be developed. This can have a positive influence on their willingness to use such games to learn computer science concepts. This implies that the study found positive outcomes related to e-learning game appeal, motivation and the learning of girls of this age group. A follow-up longitudinal study could investigate the impact of significant e-learning game representations that appeal to the target group. This could provide additional evidence on the changes in the appeal of the investigated significant game representations over time, due to the influence of other factors such as socio-economic and socio-cultural differences. This understanding can further enhance inclusive e-learning strategies to improve diversity in computer science education and consequently the career pipeline