Cyclicality and the Labor Market for Economists

A multimarket theory of optimal search suggests that job seekers will respond to a weakening market by adjusting their search strategies at the extensive margin (which markets to enter) and the intensive margin (how many applications to submit per market). Meanwhile, employers respond to the weakening market by raising their hiring standards. The equilibrium suggestst that high quality applicants will obtain an increased share of academic interviews in weak markets while applicants from weaker schools will increasingly secure interviews outside of the academic market. Empirical results show that in the bust market, graduates of elite schools shifted their search strategies to include weaker academic institutions, while graduates of lower ranked schools shifted their applications away from academia and toward the business sector. In bust conditions, academic institutions increasingly concentrate their interviews on elite school graduates, women and U.S. residents.

Interchangeability of Biosimilars: What Level of Clinical Evidence is Needed to Support the Interchangeability Designation in the United States

A biosimilar is a biologic drug that is highly similar to a reference (originator) product, with no clinically meaningful differences between the two products in safety, purity, and potency . Regulatory approval of a biosimilar is based on analytical, structural, and functional comparisons with the reference product, comparative nonclinical (in vivo) studies, clinical pharmacokinetics and/or pharmacodynamics, and immunogenicity. In addition, comparative clinical efficacy and safety assessments are usually conducted and, taken together, comprise the totality of the evidence supporting biosimilarity. For a biosimilar to meet the additional designation of interchangeability in the United States (US), the applicant must demonstrate that the biological drug can be expected to produce the same clinical result as the reference product in any given patient and if the biological drug is administered more than once to an individual, the risk in terms of safety or diminished efficacy of alternating or switching between the use of the biological drug and the reference product is no greater than the risk of using the reference product without such alternation or switch . The challenges faced in conducting clinical studies to support a designation of interchangeability, as defined in the final interchangeability guidance from the US Food and Drug Administration, are considered. Potential alternative approaches to generating adequate and sufficient clinical data to support a designation of interchangeability are also presented

Longitudinal trends (2011–2020) of premature mortality and years of potential life loss (YPLL) and associated covariates of the 62 New York State counties

Background New York State (NYS) is the 27th largest state and the 4th most populous state in the U.S., with close to 20 million people in 62 counties. Territories with diverse populations present the best opportunity to study health outcomes and associated covariates, and how these differ across different populations and groups. The County Health Ranking and Roadmaps (CHR&R) ranks counties by linking the population’s characteristics and health outcomes and contextual factors in a synchronic approach. Methods The goal of this study is to analyze the longitudinal trends in NYS counties of age‑adjusted premature mortality rate and years of potential life loss rate (YPLL) from 2011–2020 using (CHR&R) data to identify similarities and trends among the counties of the state. This study used a weighted mixed regression model to analyze the longitudi‑ nal trend in health outcomes as a function of the time‑varying covariates and clustered the 62 counties according to the trend over time in the covariates. Results Four clusters of counties were identified. Cluster 1, which represents 33 of the 62 counties in NYS, contains the most rural counties and the least racially and ethnically diverse counties. Clusters 2 and 3 mirror each other in most covariates and Cluster 4 is comprised of 3 counties (Bronx, Kings/Brooklyn, Queens) representing the most urban and racial and ethnic diverse counties in the state. Conclusion The analysis clustered counties according to the longitudinal trends of the covariates, and by doing so identified clusters of counties that shared similar trends among the covariates, to later examine trends in the health outcomes through a regression model. The strength of this approach lies in the predictive feature of what is to come for the counties by understanding the covariates and setting prevention goals

Effects of resistance training performed to repetition failure or non-failure on muscular strength and hypertrophy: A systematic review and meta-analysis

PURPOSE: We aimed to perform a systematic review and meta-analysis of the effects of training to muscle failure or non-failure on muscular strength and hypertrophy. METHODS: Meta-analyses of effect sizes (ESs) explored the effects of training to failure vs. non-failure on strength and hypertrophy. Subgroup meta-analyses explored potential moderating effects of variables such as training status (trained vs. untrained), training volume (volume equated vs. volume non-equated), body region (upper vs. lower), exercise selection (multi- vs. single-joint exercises (only for strength)), and study design (independent vs. dependent groups). RESULTS: Fifteen studies were included in the review. All studies included young adults as participants. Meta-analysis indicated no significant difference between the training conditions for muscular strength (ES = –0.09, 95% confidence interval (95%CI): –0.22 to 0.05) and for hypertrophy (ES = 0.22, 95%CI: –0.11 to 0.55). Subgroup analyses that stratified the studies according to body region, exercise selection, or study design showed no significant differences between training conditions. In studies that did not equate training volume between the groups, the analysis showed significant favoring of non-failure training on strength gains (ES = –0.32, 95%CI: –0.57 to –0.07). In the subgroup analysis for resistance-trained individuals, the analysis showed a significant effect of training to failure for muscle hypertrophy (ES = 0.15, 95%CI: 0.03–0.26). CONCLUSION: Training to muscle failure does not seem to be required for gains in strength and muscle size. However, training in this manner does not seem to have detrimental effects on these adaptations, either. More studies should be conducted among older adults and highly trained individuals to improve the generalizability of these findings

Longitudinal trends (2011–2020) of premature mortality and years of potential life loss (YPLL) and associated covariates of the 62 New York State counties

Background New York State (NYS) is the 27th largest state and the 4th most populous state in the U.S., with close to 20 million people in 62 counties. Territories with diverse populations present the best opportunity to study health outcomes and associated covariates, and how these differ across different populations and groups. The County Health Ranking and Roadmaps (CHR&R) ranks counties by linking the population’s characteristics and health outcomes and contextual factors in a synchronic approach. Methods The goal of this study is to analyze the longitudinal trends in NYS counties of age-adjusted premature mortality rate and years of potential life loss rate (YPLL) from 2011–2020 using (CHR&R) data to identify similarities and trends among the counties of the state. This study used a weighted mixed regression model to analyze the longitudinal trend in health outcomes as a function of the time-varying covariates and clustered the 62 counties according to the trend over time in the covariates. Results Four clusters of counties were identified. Cluster 1, which represents 33 of the 62 counties in NYS, contains the most rural counties and the least racially and ethnically diverse counties. Clusters 2 and 3 mirror each other in most covariates and Cluster 4 is comprised of 3 counties (Bronx, Kings/Brooklyn, Queens) representing the most urban and racial and ethnic diverse counties in the state. Conclusion The analysis clustered counties according to the longitudinal trends of the covariates, and by doing so identified clusters of counties that shared similar trends among the covariates, to later examine trends in the health outcomes through a regression model. The strength of this approach lies in the predictive feature of what is to come for the counties by understanding the covariates and setting prevention goals

Muscular adaptations in drop set vs. traditional training: a meta-analysis

The purpose of this paper was to systematically review and meta-analyze the effects of drop set training (DS) vs. traditional training (TRAD) on measures of muscle strength and hypertrophy. We carried out a comprehensive search on PubMed/MEDLINE, Scopus, Web of Science, and CINAHL databases for studies that satisfied the following criteria: (a) had a randomized experimental design (either within- or between-group); (b) directly compared DS versus TRAD; (c) assessed changes in muscular strength and/or hypertrophy; (d) had a training protocol that lasted a minimum of 6 weeks, and; (e) involved apparently healthy participants. We employed a robust variance meta-analysis model, with adjustments for small samples. Study quality was assessed by the Downs and Black checklist. A total of 5 studies met inclusion criteria. Qualitative assessment indicated the included studies were of moderate to good quality. For the strength outcomes results indicated a trivial point estimate of the effect size (ES) with a relatively narrow precision for the confidence interval (CI) estimate (0.07; 95% CI = -0.14, 0.29). Similarly, results for the hypertrophy outcomes indicated a trivial point estimate of the ES with a relatively narrow precision for the CI estimate (0.08; 95% CI = -0.08, 0.24). In conclusion, DS and TRAD appear to have similar effects on muscular strength and hypertrophy. This would seem to indicate that both DS and TRAD are viable options for promoting muscular adaptations; DS may provide a more time-efficient alternative for achieving results